What Is the Difference Between Sodium and Salt

Technically salt can be any ionic compound formed by reacting an acid and a base, but most of the time the word is used to refer to table salt, which is sodium chloride or NaCl. So, you know salt contains sodium, but the two chemicals arent the same thing. Sodium Sodium is a chemical element. It is very reactive, so it isnt found free in nature. In fact, it undergoes spontaneous combustion in water, so while sodium is essential for human nutrition, you wouldnt want to eat pure sodium. When you ingest salt, the sodium, and the chlorine ions in sodium chloride separate from each other, making the sodium available for your body to use. Sodium in the Body Sodium is used to transmit nerve impulses and is found in every cell of your body. The balance between sodium and other ions regulates the pressure of cells and is related to your blood pressure, too. Amount Of Sodium in Salt Since sodium levels are so critical to so many chemical reactions in your body, the amount of sodium you eat or drink has important implications for your health. If you are trying to regulate or limit your intake of sodium, you need to realize the quantity of salt you eat is related to the amount of sodium  but is not the same. This is because salt contains both sodium and chlorine, so when salt dissociates into its ions, the mass is divided (not equally) between sodium and chlorine ions. The reason salt isnt just half sodium and half chlorine is because a sodium ion and a chlorine ion dont weight the same amount. Sample Salt and Sodium Calculation For example, here is how to calculate the amount of sodium in 3 grams (g) of salt. You will notice 3 grams of salt does not contain 3 grams of sodium, nor is half the mass of salt from sodium, so 3 grams of salt does not contain 1.5 grams of sodium: Na: 22.99 grams/moleCl: 35.45 grams/mole1 mole of NaCl 23 35.5 g 58.5 grams per moleSodium is 23/58.5 x 100% 39.3% of salt is sodium Then the amount of sodium in 3 grams of salt 39.3% x 3 1.179 g or about 1200 mg An easy way to calculate the amount of sodium in salt is to realize 39.3% of the amount of salt comes from sodium. Just multiply 0.393 times the mass of the salt and you will have the mass of sodium. Top Dietary Sources of Sodium While table salt is an obvious source of sodium, the CDC reports 40% of dietary sodium comes from 10 foods. The list may be surprising because many of these foods dont taste particularly salty: BreadCured meats (e.g., cold cuts, bacon)PizzaPoultrySoupSandwichesCheesePasta (usually cooked with salted water)Meat dishesSnack foods

Relationship Between Self Esteem and Achievement - 4980 Words

ABSTRACT The present study explored the relationship between individual self esteem and achievement. The sample of the study consisted of 85 respondents working in the private sector of Pakistan. A total of 21 companies were visited for this purpose. It was hypothesized that individuals having self-esteem will also have high achievement. Two scales were used to measure self-esteem and achievement. Self-esteem scale comprised of 13 items and the achievement scale also comprised of 13 items measured on 6 components of achievement. Both questionnaires were given to each subject and analyzed afterwards. The results indicated that those subjects scoring high on self-esteem scale also scored high on achievement scale. The results are†¦show more content†¦Rosenberg (1979) viewed the self as made up of 2 elements, identity which represents cognitive variables and self-esteem which represents the affective variables. Self esteem is operationally defined as: â€Å"Individual’s feelings about his or her worth as a person, derived from the evaluation of various salient dimensions of the self, namely psychological, social and physical or any other† (Rifai, 1999). Types of Self-esteem Korman (1986) suggests three types of self-esteem. They are: Chronic Self-esteem This type is defined as a relatively persistent personality trait or dispositional state that occurs consistently across various situations. This self-esteem is a result of past experiences and focuses on one’s competencies. An individual’s confidence in his/her competencies directs the individual into situations which require the use of those competencies. Task Specific Self-esteem Task specific self-esteem is one’s self perception of his/her competence concerning a particular task or job. This type of self-esteem is the result of feedback, which comes directly from the observation of he results of one’s efforts. Socially Influenced Self-esteem This type of self-esteem is a function of the expectations of others. It results from communication or feedback from reference group members or society as a whole, concerning the value of identity and the individual’s ability to meet the expectations of the reference groups and/or the society as a whole. TheoriesShow MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Personality Types, Test Anxiety and Self-Esteem with Regards to Academic Achievement2988 Words   |  12 PagesThe Relationship Between Personality Types, Test Anxiety and Self-Esteem with regards to Academic Achievement This study was performed to determine if there is a relationship between personality type, test anxiety, self-esteem and academic achievement, which was measured by the students GPA. The study was conducted at a university in Indiana using undergraduatevolunteers. The study used a scale from the MBTI to help determine personality types (introvert or extrovert), also Rosenberg’s 10 - itemRead MoreRelationship Between The Big Five Personality Traits And Academic Motivation1136 Words   |  5 PagesRunning head: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY 1 The Relationship Between the Big Five Personality Traits and Academic Motivation 13366876 School of Psychology Bond University THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY 2 The Relationship Between the Big Five Personality Traits and Academic Motivation: A Review of Personality and Individual Differences In this article, much is explained about the different learning styles, ways of achievement, and thinkingRead MoreSelf Confidence And Self Esteem768 Words   |  4 PagesThe self-confidence and self-esteem of young children may be greatly boosted by a strong key person approach in the setting. Many aspects of this approach support the safeguarding of children. A sense of wellbeing involves feeling good about yourself and having a positive outlook on life. It embraces a range of positive feelings, including enjoyment, vitality, self-confidence and self-esteem. Children and young people who have a positive sense of wellbeing are less likely to be vulnerable to abuseRead MoreGroups Of One Hundred High School Juniors884 Words   |  4 Pagesto mitigate any disparities between general academic achievement and socioeconomic status. Students are only eligible if they are enrolled in college prep courses. Students will not be considered if they are currently taking honors or advanced plac ement courses. This is to ensure that the data is not skewed in one direction based on the level of rigor a student has received. This is also an attempt to have the students as similar as possible to determine the relationship uniforms have on performanceRead MoreCognitive Development As A Young Person As They Reach Puberty1719 Words   |  7 Pagesbehaviors (Steinberg, 2010). The goal of this paper is to be able to explain the cognitive changes that occur in a young person as they reach puberty. These changes in the adolescents brain can affect their: (a) Academic achievement (b) Self-Esteem (c) Parent and Peer relationships (d) Social adjustments Nevertheless, we must first analyze the cognitive development and the brain of the adolescent to further understand the topics stated above. Cognitive Development: As previously stated, oneRead MoreAffective Factors : Self Efficacy, Self Esteem, And Self Confidence811 Words   |  4 PagesAffective factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-confidence. Bandura (1994) proposed that individual’s perceived self-efficacy plays a central role in anxiety arousal when encountering potentially threatening situations. According to Bandura, self-efficacy is â€Å"people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives† (1994, p. 71). In other words, individuals’ perceptions regarding their efficacy areRead MoreEssay On Suboptimal Health Status1451 Words   |  6 Pagesthe altering of unhealthy lifestyle factors into healthy ones, and that focus should be placed on efforts to modify these factors (Chen et al., 2017). Additionally, in another study including male and female Chinese adults, a correlation was found between lifestyle factors and subhealth (Li, Xie, Yan, Hu, Jin, Wang, Xie, 2013). Physical activity levels, nutritional intake, smoking, alcohol consumption, and quality of sleep were factors used in the calculation of a lifestyle risk score (Li et al.Read MoreGender And Academic Performance Among College Students1489 Words   |  6 Pagesdegree obtainment such as tuition cost, being overwhelmed by the advanced curriculum, and the loss motivation; however, another factor that may contribute to this issue is simply the way one feels about him/herself. Although the most crucial time for self/identity development is probably during adolescence, it is still possible for people’s sense of identity to change. It may be possible that people’s ethnic identity, specifically, can change as they become older and gain more life experiences. IdentityRead MoreWhats Going Wrong in Public School1743 Words   |  7 Pagespublic school system in America today is sadly lacking, not just in the field of academic achievement. Children are, in effect, risking their lives by attending school. Critical attacks from disturbed students are spreading like a plague. Every year, there is increase in the number of students who give up education after high school and start working in minimum wage jobs/unskilled jobs. Stereotypes between smart and dumb students and racism are the biggest issues student faces in school educationRead MoreEssay on The Effects Of Grade Retention927 Words   |  4 Pages2010). A consistent predictor of low reading achievement as well as lower mathematic achievement was retention in grade (McCoy Reynolds, 1999). Also, as a result of retention in grade being a particular risk factor, retained students are less likely to come to school prepared with books, homework and school supplies or arrive at school on tim e (Stearns et al, 2007). Moreover, compared to children retained in grades 4-8, children who were retained between kindergarten and 3rd grade were more likely

The Kings Speech free essay sample

Movie Critique for The King’s Speech I watched The King’s Speech for my movie critique at home. This film tells the story of Prince Albert, the Duke of York, and how he overcame a life-long speech impediment with the help of Lionel Logue, a speech therapist from Australia. The movie begins with Prince Albert (Colin Firth) attempting to deliver a speech written by his father at the closing ceremony of the Empire Exhibition. We find out that the king has already spoken, as well as Prince Albert’s older brother, the Prince of Wales, and now the Duke of York must speak. As he begins the speech, it becomes clear that he has a debilitating stutter. The scene following shows what I assume is one of many failed treatments by a specialist to cure him of his speech problem. The Duke becomes frustrated during the treatment and asks his wife, Elizabeth, the Duchess of York (Helena Bonham Carter), to promise that he won’t have to see any more doctors. We have to learn to be brave and persevere we have to try In order to get it done. Every day we use our delve right to be heard by being in class, answering questions, with friends and communication with just about anyone. Question 3:When the King was practicing giving speeches in public I saw that he concentrated or relaxed himself by swaying his feet back and forth, taking deep breaths, eventuating words, practicing an hour a day and having support from his wife. These things can be helpful if someone was afraid of speaking in public because it helps you focus and keep calm once you have started your speech. In our speech class we have a strong support system, our own classmates, which make us feel comfortable speaking in front of them, which helps us during our speech.

The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue Midnight free essay sample

The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue: Midnight The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue: Midnight by Longboats Hughes are two poems written as scenes of urban life. Although these poems were written more than seventy years ago, It Is surprising to see some general similarities they share with modern day city life. Deleted down with word play and Irrelevant lines such as And the gods are laughing at us. , the underlying theme Is evidently urban life. The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue: Midnight approach the general topic of urban life from two different aspects also.The Weary Blues speaks of a person hearing a Negro playing the blues on a piano Down on Lenox Avenue the other night,. The poem is centered around this event, explaining He did a lazy seaways did a lazy sways It seems that Hughes was addressing the common link of Negroes, urban life, and the blues music seventy years ago; quite a different approach than his other work. We will write a custom essay sample on The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue: Midnight or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Lenox Avenue: Midnight, my personal favorite of the two, is more of an outlook on urban life back then, stating that The Rhythm of life/ Is a Jazzy rhythm,.There Is an uneasy connection between urban life Itself and the blues music that was so common during that time In that urban life Itself Is nothing but the blues and that the gods are laughing at us. Lenox Avenue: Midnight Is a more meaningful poem, reaching out to anyone that could relate. In a way it relates to modern day hip-hop in the sense of reaching out to the common people of that culture and time. The Weary Blues on the other hand is more of an observation thing going on in the poem, observing the Negro man laying the blues on his piano.The poems indirectly relate to modern day city life. Instead of the blues, hip-hop has taken its place. For instance, The Weary Blues speaks off Negro man playing the blues over a piano. Nowadays in city life youd instead find an inner city youth of any race freestyles or rapping to a more hip-hop groove. Considering history only repeats Itself, and that every culture progresses off the prior one, these two poems show how city life Is city life, experiencing Its own modern day blues through progression of the last.

How to Get a Job in Another State

How to Get a Job in Another State Maybe your partner or your spouse is being transferred. Maybe you’re just graduating from a far-off college and want to live and work closer to home. Or maybe you just need a change of scenery. For most people, the most stressful and important part about moving is finding employment in a new city. Unless you work remotely, this can be tricky. Here are 6 ways you can make potential employers confident in hiring you as an out-of-state applicant.1. Ditch your home address.At best, your home address is irrelevant to your qualifications for the job. At worst, it could turn off hiring managers who don’t want to pay relocation expenses, or aren’t sure about your commitment or ability to move and start in a timely fashion.If you absolutely need a home address, you can get yourself a local mailbox that will forward to you through Mailboxes, Etc. If your phone number is holding you back, you can get a Google phone number with the area code of your target state.2. Do your r esearch.The more you know about the place you want to go the better. What are the major industries? What does the job market look like? Figure out through the Chambers of Commerce and the state or city’s Office of Economic Development which jobs are hot and therefore easier to land. If you don’t know where exactly you want to move, research instead what states and cities are best for the field you want to work in. Finally, see if it feels like a place where you would really want to live.Check out the following:Top 5 Jobs in the WestTop 5 Jobs in the NortheastTop 5 Jobs in the SouthwestTop 5 Jobs in the MidwestTop 5 Jobs in the Southeast3. Grow your network.Tap into your existing network to mine for contacts who might be able to help you get your foot in the door somewhere else- particularly your alumni network. Ask for email introductions to local companies or contacts. Visit if you can. No matter what, start building your own network there through social media sites a nd LinkedIn. Join a local meet-up or LinkedIn group for updates.4. Take care of your own moving logistics.To avoid missing out on opportunities with companies that don’t want to pay to help you move, there are ways to let them know you’re willing to handle the move logistics and expenses yourself. A line in your cover letter addressing the issue works. You could always make it clear that you are already living in the city, staying with a friend or subletting, pending your job search.If you can be there physically, it’s never inappropriate to mention when you’ll be there and available for an interview. Employers will be much more eager to hire you if they don’t have to pay for relocation.5. Be smart about money.Figure out the logistics of your financial situation in your new state before you get there. Bone up on the relative cost-of-living, the average salary range for your industry and role, how far your money will go when you live there, and how much you require. Figure out your target state’s tax code to assess your liabilities.6. Assure them you  will be moving.Remember, no potential employer wants to hear you waffling. Be willing to talk about it- and when you do, be honest. Don’t make promises to interview if you cannot make it. Ask instead for a Skype interview, if possible. But do make sure to make it clear that you are moving, not just that you’re considering it. Make them know you’re as safe a bet as someone already living down the street.

Indirect Questions in English for ESL Learners

Indirect Questions in English for ESL Learners Indirect questions are a form used to be more polite in English. Consider the following situation: You are talking to a man at a meeting that you have never met. However, you know his name and also that this man knows a colleague named Jack. You turn to him and ask, Where is Jack? You might find that the man seems a little bothered and says he doesnt know. He isnt very friendly. You wonder why he seems bothered. Its probably because you didnt introduce yourself, didnt say excuse me, and- most importantly- you asked a direct question. Direct questions might be  considered rude when speaking to strangers. To be more polite we often use indirect question forms. Indirect questions serve the same purpose as direct questions but are considered more formal. One of the main reasons for this is that English does not have a formal you form. In other languages, its possible to use the formal you in order to make sure you are polite. In English, we turn to indirect questions. Forming Indirect Questions Information questions are posed using the question words where, what, when, how, why, and which. In order to form an indirect question,  use an introductory phrase followed by the question itself in positive sentence structure: Introductory phrase question word   positive sentence Connect the two phrases with the question word or ‘if’ in the case the question is a yes/no question. that begins without a question word. Examples Where is Jack? I was wondering if you know where Jack is.When does Alice usually arrive? Do you know when Alice usually arrives?What have you done this week? Can you tell me what youve done this week?How much does it cost? Id like to know how much it costs.Which color suits me? Im not sure which color suits me.  Why did he leave his job? I wonder why he left his job. Common Phrases Here are some of the most common phrases used for asking indirect questions. Many of these phrases are questions (i.e., Do you know when the next train leaves?), while others are statements made to indicate a question (i.e., I wonder if he will be on time.). Do you know †¦ ?I wonder / was wondering †¦.Can you tell me †¦ ?Do you happen to know ...?I have no idea ...Im not sure ...Id like to know ... Sometimes we also use these phrases to indicate that wed like some more information: Do you know when the concert begins?I wonder when he will arrive.Can you tell me how to check out a book.I’m not sure what he considers appropriate.I don’t know if he is coming to the party this evening. Quiz Now that you have a good understanding of indirect questions. Heres a short quiz to test your understanding. Take each direct question and create an indirect question with an introductory phrase. What time does the train leave?How long will the meeting last?When does he get off work?Why have they waited so long to react?Are you coming to the party tomorrow?Which car should I choose?Where are the books for the class?Does he enjoy hiking?How much does the computer cost?Will they attend the conference next month? Answers The answers use a variety of introductory phrases. There are many introductory phrases that are correct, only one is shown. Make sure to check the word order of the second half of your answer. Can you tell me what time the train leaves?I have no idea how long the meeting will last.Im not sure when he gets off work.  Do you know why they have waited so long to react?I wonder if you are coming to the party tomorrow.Im not sure which care I should choose.Can you tell me where the books for the class are?I dont know if he enjoys hiking.Do you happen to know how much the computer costs?Im not sure if they will attend the conference next month.

Anything Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Anything - Essay Example House ownership grants one access to opportunities for families such as neighborhoods with good schools, jobs and public services. In order for one to get good housing the amount of money he is paid becomes a factor. This essay will examine the trends in housing and the financial position of an individual in details. There is a large gap in house ownership between different people which has continued to increase though barriers in homeownership for the minority groups were lifted long time ago. The current housing policy now targets minority homeownership with the specific intention of closing the gap in house ownership among different groups. The casual expansion of urban land which was traditionally professed as an significant way through which the poorest inhabitants of the urban centers got shelter. This has changed since most of the middle, and high-income households tend to buy land casually for housing. It is clear that those workers who are able to learn new working skills especially in technology will benefit from higher salaries. But on the other hand those who are used to carrying out routine jobs which can be handled by computers and robots will be competing with few jobs or will be pushed into low-skill jobs and hence it will be difficult for them to afford buying better houses (Tal ly 22). It is difficult for the middle-income people to purchase a house in the formal market. This is due to their low-income. This in turn forces them to construct low cost structures as their homes and expenses and can increase the budgets of the developer beyond the monetary capability of the scheme. The cost of land on the other hand, has increased greatly hence this leads to increase the housing gap. Those people who earn larger amount of money posses the ability to construct several houses, which they in turn they rent to the low-income earners at high costs In most parts of the country it evident

Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Economy - Essay Example How has China developed over the past century? Importantly, what is China’s economic growth experience over the 1977-2007 period? China is an ancient civilization with a long tradition of dynastic rule and strong leaders. China has been ruled by the Communist Party of China (CCP) since 1949, an avowedly socialist form of government which established the People’s Republic of China, and initially viewed capitalism through a skeptic’s lens. As a socialist party with communist leanings, successive Chinese governments undertook disastrous social and economic initiatives including Five Year Plans, the failed Great Leap Forward and the violent Cultural Revolution. Despite some recent challenges, Chinese agriculture has witnessed important growth over the past thirty years and this has been propelled by a variety of forces. With a population of more than 1.3 billion, China remains a largely rural country with 43% of its labor force employed in agriculture with another 25% in industry and 32% in the service sector. Accordingly, decollectivization of the agricultural sector, public investment in the indust ry and market reforms have all played a role in stimulating this development. Human capital has been utilized by the authorities in Beijing through direct investment in the agricultural sector as well as through institutional changes aimed at developing this sector. By emphasizing the natural resources which China has been endowed with and employing technology appropriated through an opening up of the economy, the Chinese government is currently employing market liberalization to aid in the development of this industry, among others. China’s latest â€Å"New Rural Campaign† is the latest manifestation of this development, accounting for strong macro-economic growth and sustainable agricultural development (The Economist, 2008; Jia & Fock

The Scope and Definition of Evil Essay Example for Free

The Scope and Definition of Evil Essay The Chinese symbol, Yin Yang, have always amazed me. It has been believed to be a symbol of the balance of the forces of good and evil in the world. It speaks of the coexistence of good and evil; that each cannot overthrow the other or that one cannot subsist without the other. Thus, in the concept of evil and its meaning, it is only proper that good should come with it. But then, if we speak of evil, we are already implicitly speaking of goodness. Consequently, what then is the definition of evil? To what extent does the concept of evil grasp? In the first place, is there really such a thing as evil? Evil has so many definitions in the different contexts that it can invade. In Christian theology, evil is simply that which should not exist at all (Sharpe, 1909). Evil is the summation of all the opposition and negative events and situations that can render suffering to mankind. In popular Christian discussions, evil amounts to one thing, that is, the absence of good. This is somewhat in contrary to the concept that lies within the Yin Yang symbol. In relation to Christianity, other traditional religions claim that evil is an active force that drives anyone into doing acts of violence and any other deed that can jeopardize human life or life itself. Thus, terrorist attacks, torture and murder are some examples of the different forms of evil. In general terms, evil is intentional behavior or stimulation of others resulting to events that demean, dehumanize, harm, destroy or kill innocent people (Zimbardo, 2003, p. 3). It does not only include the very action of violence but also evil is something that urges one to do immoral acts that defame people. Furthermore, evil cannot only reside tangibly; it can also exist in the mind. Thus, evil can be regarded as a group of thoughts in one’s mind that plan to or wish to inflict harm or death to certain people. The nature of evil can be classified into three types. The first of which is physical evil that can cause bodily harm or harm to man’s properties (Sharpe, 1909). It is therefore physically evil to rob someone. It is consequently the same evil to shot someone. One very famous example of this type of evil is the September 11 terrorist attack on World Trade Center twin towers. Another type of evil is called moral evil. As its name implies, it concerns the principles that a person has or a particular society possesses. Moral evil encompasses the deviations and violations from the accepted set of beliefs that a person or an event causes. Such evil is observed in the tradition of cannibalism which is one of the many ancient practices that is condemned by the major religions of the world. In the modern times, an example of moral evil is the view of Christians against contraception. To the Roman Catholic Church, the use of contraception is moral evil. It violates the moral belief that only God can decide when or how one will have a baby. It violates the belief that though there is still is no physical evidence of a life in the tummy of a woman, life can already exist. The third type of evil is known as the metaphysical evil. This evil is very complicated since it does not speak of physical or conceptual evil in the sense that the two former types exist. Metaphysical evil does not involve human beings but rather the environment they live in and the things found in it (Sharpe, 1909). It is related to nature, plants, animals the elements of the world. Surprising as it may seem, we surely have encountered such. Pain, harm or damage inflicted to animals or anything comprising the things found in nature is evil. But it is not the same evil which can be regarded to human since no one can actually define the emotions and feelings, if such exist, of the things and creatures in the environment. Thus, metaphysical evil is only a representation of the evil that can exist in nature. Looking at the different types of evil, we would certainly perceive the relativity of its concept. The evil that a group of persons may consider can be considered good by another society. An act of violence condemned by others may be an act or heroism to some. Hence, there is no real line that separates the good and evil of the world. Who then has the right set of limitations regarding evil? Spinoza pointed out that due to this complication, evil can be judged by everyone according to what his or her conscience dictates (2005, p. 135). If so, then, there is no exact and distinguishing rule between what is evil and what is good. This may sound confusing. In extreme cases, it actually may be simple. If one is choosing between two things in extremes, such as life and death, surely, it will be easy to decide that death is evil and life is good. Nevertheless, if we look into more complex situations wherein the two choices are both good and still have to decide which is better and which one is not, it can be very difficult. In the same manner is when a person is confronted with two evil things where he has to judge the lesser evil. It is thus proper to state that evil is that which is the lesser good. In another explanation of evil, it is discussed as â€Å"knowing better but doing worse† (Zimbardo, 2003, p. 3). This may somehow simplify the issue of judgment. What is evil is what is deemed to be evil by one’s conscience. If a person’s mind speaks of an action as harmful, and yet the person continues to execute such endeavor, it is then considered evil. On the other hand, this opens the possibility that not all violence can be viewed as evil. If the person performing the act is not aware that what he is doing is a form of violence, then it is not evil at all. To be guilty of evil is to deliberately do an act of cruelty knowing it causes pain to other beings. Furthermore, deliberately doing a perceived evil and taking pleasure in it is far worse. Yet, can anyone be considered innocent of evil because of ignorance of it? In a different context, ignorance itself is evil since the idea of evil is that which opposes or negates. Another aspect that can be broadened in the concept of evil is the source from whence it came. In the book, â€Å"Augustine on Evil† by Gillian Evans, evil is asserted to come completely from a person’s will (1994, p. 98). In Christian theology, evil can be the product of Satan, also known as Lucifer, who somehow resolved to build his own empire. It is also believed that Satan’s kingdom is the world. It is therefore justifiable to state that evil can come from man’s will since man is of the world. Nevertheless, evil can also be due to the presence of good. How can one come into such a conclusion? In the earlier discussions, we have defined that evil is the absence of good. It is the counterpart of goodness. Thus, the existence of good can account for the existence of evil. Categorically, one can also say that evil thrive in society because pain and violence is visible. But then, violence and terror are products of evil. In sum, evil can ironically come out of good. Without goodness, evil cannot subsist. To further explain this point, let us take for example the existence of good people. The existence of good persons can attract what we consider evil since unconsciously, by being good, people become prone to abuse which can be a ground for evil actions. According to Alford, evil is an encounter with dread (1997, p. 3). But then, let’s get back to the Chinese symbol, yin yang. Observing it intently, we will see the equal line that differentiates the white from the black. It speaks of balance and justice between the two forces, if there is such a thing as justice between evil and good. For every evil that can transpire there is corresponding equal good that can come out of the situation. Further examination of the symbol will affirm that good cannot be intertwined with evil in a way of blending. There is no such thing as a grey idea of good and evil. If a thing is evil, it will remain evil though much of the modern people claim it to be otherwise. If it is good, then it will forever remain good. No evil can be completely evil because in the process, good will always sprout out. It is true, many of us have experienced evil in our lives but it is seldom realized that the hurts evil can bring to us is countered. With every evil experience, lessons are learned. Without evil, we will never understand and enjoy goodness, just as we won’t understand a smile if we don’t recognized a frown in the first place.

William Shakespeare :: essays research papers

William Shakespeare, undoubtedly one of the best playwrights of all time, was born in April of 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire. His parents were John Shakespeare, a whittawer, and Mary Arden Shakespeare. He was the third of eight children born to John and Mary and was their first son. They lived on Henley Street in Stratford. His baptism was on April 26 of that year at Stratford's Holy Trinity Church. His date of birth is assumed to be April 23. He went to Stratford Grammar School from the age of seven to fourteen. At the age of eighteen, on November 28, 1582, William was married by the bishop of Worcester, to Anne Hathaway of Shottery. Anne was seven or eight years older than him and was three months pregnant at the time of their marriage. Their first child together, Susanna, was born on May 26, 1583. Two years after that, Hamnet and Judith were born together. Shakespeare and his family most likely lived in the house on Henley Street. In 1592, Shakespeare's theater career took off. Robert Greene referred to him as an "upstart crow", and from that point on, everyone started paying attention to him. Other famous and notable literary critics also commented on Shakespeare. Shakespeare belonged to a number of acting companies in the beginning: The Queen's Men, Pembroke's Men, and Lord Strange's Men. But in January of 1593, a plague broke out and theaters all across London were closed. In December of 1594, Shakespeare has been noted to have started performing again. His new acting company was known as Lord Chamberlain's Men. The decade or so after that, was huge for Shakespeare. This was the time of The Great Globe theater where many of his best plays were performed. During this time, Shakespeare produced a steady line of hit plays, historical plays, comedies, and tragedies. In 1599 he finally became a part owner of the Globe. While all of this went on in London, Shakespeare's family resided back in Stratford, about 100 miles northwest of London. It is suggested that he often made trips to see his family and deliver them money.

Creating a Plan of Positive Influence

When creating a plan for positive influence leaderships must focus on an array of characteristics of the employee. Organizational culture is important to the success of the employees and the company. ABC Tax Preparation Company wants to engage its staff in creating new revenue streams for the company. The company must identify traits demonstrated by employees to help create a profile of how individuals are motivated and open to improving his or her performance in the workplace. Research has shown there are several methods to induce motivation, performance, and job satisfaction (Yukl, 2006). This is a description on a plan identifying the implementation strategies to create, engage, and sustain employee in the workplace. The methods employers use to engage employees concentrate on attitudes, emotions, personalities, and values of individuals. In addition, the importance of diverse behavior and the influence it has on team collaboration and cohesion in the workplace is addressed. Objective ABC Tax Preparation Company is a small company attempting to expand its business through the implementation of new products and services. The company has a very small budget so it is important to maximize efforts to stay within the specified budget. The objective is to create a plan to influence employees to generate ideas on how to growth the company with new products and services. ABC Tax Preparation believes by engaging all employees to get involved in the brainstorming process will help the company with its goals and stay within budget. Providing employees with incentives persuades employees to go above and beyond to differentiate performance levels from its competitors (Love 2 rewards,2013). Outline of the Plan ABC Tax Preparation Company creates a profile of all employees to determine individual motivators, skills, creativity, strengths, and weaknesses. This is accomplished thought a series of test and skill determining exercises. First, the company implements motivational exercises and incentive to build moral within the company. Developing employee excitement to accept change and learning new task is a dynamic process important to moving a company in a positive direction. The next phase is getting to know the employees by determining his or her stressors, stimulators, and how individual measure success (Bass, 1990). The individual’s attitude, beliefs, experiences, ethics, and values are evaluated to determine if he or she align with the company’s visions and goals. Once these factors are determined, the company trains employees on conflict resolution and problem-solving techniques to help in the education process. This type of training is important because knowing how to deal with problems helps individuals to learn to deal with situations and create alternative solutions to solve issues. After employees are educated on techniques and other skills the company allows the creative process to occur and wait for the positive feedback. Once feedback is rendered the company will select the best ideas and start the implementation process to build new revenue streams for the company. How differences influence Behavior Diverse workforces interact with leaders, management, and subordinate in a distinctive way. Individuals coming from diverse backgrounds and cultures respond to direction and commands different from individuals in a familiar setting. Behavior has a direct effect on the way people perceive things and how different personality traits play a role on the performance of the individual (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Understanding and recognizing the relationship between variables influences behavior and aids in creating productive and motivated employees. ABC Tax Preparation Company employs a multicultural staff therefore there are different languages, beliefs, customs, and ideas management must consider when make decision. Leadership has to take into consideration when selecting holidays and other factors that all parties are represented equally. If employees do not feel, they are treated like the majority than the company is open for potential legal issues as a result. How plan influences positive change Motivation is a key component to creating an environment offering optimization of performance in the workplace. Change can be difficult for companies some employees embrace change and others fear change. Developing a plan to influences positive change requires understanding, educating, and motivating the employee. Brainstorming allows the employees to highlight creativity, education, and other skill-sets that will develop growth for the individual. Encouraging employees to engage in business activities builds moral and creates a collaborative work environment. Productivity is generated when employees are working together to achieve the same goals and objectives. Setting examples to show employees everyone is important and involved in the developmentally stages of the process give team-members a sense of worth, thus producing positive results. Making the employee understand the behavior presented determines the level of growth him or her may experience. Positive attitude can dive the individual faster than negative or unsure attitude. Conclusion ABC tax Preparation Company chooses to prioritize the engagement of its employees to aid in the implementation of a new revenue source for the company. Creating a plan to influence its employees to experience positive attitude toward changes is imperative to the process. A clear objective is outlined to determine what is needed to reach the goals of the company. ABC Tax Preparation Company outlines the details of the plan as proves motivated employees are productive employees when leadership creates cohesion in the workplace. Diversity in the workplace influences behavior by allowing individuals to express themselves and collaborated among each other to create innovative products and services for the company. The Initiation of a plan produces positive results for the company by setting a blueprint of how the company will use new ideas to generate new revenue streams for the company.

Meaning of Life and Hockey Essay

It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together. It may not seem like it, but there are quite a few similarities between the Baliness cock-fight and hockey in Canada. The cockfight is a major sporting event in the Baliness community and hockey is a major sport for Canadians. In both, the objective is to win. In the Baliness society a person can’t bet against a cock from the family, or village, but can bet against an enemy. One should not be betting against you own hometown team in hockey. 2 roosters have sharp metal spurs on their legs, are to fight until the death. Men surround them shouting for their favorites, placing wagers. Cock has a double meaning of rooster, and male penis. There are the same jokes in America. The baliness word for cock, has other meanings of hero, warrior, and champion. They are held in arenas, the winner gets to take the loser home to eat. A man will never bet against a family or friend. He will place bets against an enemy. Cocks usually fight against out of town. The owners of cocks are leaders in communities. There was rarely a profit made, it is about status. Cocks represent men and owners. The fate of the cock is the fate of the owner. Hockey and cock-fighting are both spectating sports, where we pick a side. There are similar expressions used like â€Å"roughing and slashing†. Canadians love fighting too. Winnings and losing is important in both hockey and cock-fighting. Winners celebrate, losers are depressed. Hockey brings Canadians together.

Battle of Shiloh in the Civil War

Battle of Shiloh in the Civil War The Battle of Shiloh was fought April 6-7, 1862, and was an early engagement of the Civil War (1861-1865). Advancing into Tennessee, Major General Ulysses S. Grants troops were attacked by the Confederate Army of Mississippi. Taken by surprise, Union forces were driven back towards the Tennessee River. Able to hold, Grant was reinforced during the night of April 6/7 and launched a massive counterattack in the morning. This drove the Confederates from the field and secured a victory for the Union. The bloodiest battle of the war to date, the losses at Shiloh stunned the public but were far lower than the battles that would come later in the conflict. Lead-up to the Battle In the wake of the Union victories at Forts Henry and Donelson in February 1862, Major General Ulysses S. Grant pressed up the Tennessee River with the Army of West Tennessee. Halting at Pittsburg Landing, Grant was under orders to link up with Major General Don Carlos Buells Army of the Ohio for a thrust against the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Not expecting a Confederate attack, Grant ordered his men to bivouac and commenced a regimen of training and drill. Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant. Photograph Courtesy of the National Archives Records Administration While the bulk of the army remained at Pittsburg Landing, Grant dispatched Major General Lew Wallaces division several miles north to Stoney Lonesome. Unbeknownst to Grant, his Confederate opposite number, General Albert Sidney Johnston had concentrated his departments forces at Corinth, MS. Intending to attack the Union camp, Johnstons Army of Mississippi departed Corinth on April 3 and encamped three miles from Grants men. Planning to move forward the next day, Johnston was forced to delay the attack forty-eight hours. This delay led his second-in-command, General P.G.T. Beauregard, to advocate cancelling the operation as he believed the element of surprise had been lost. Not to be deterred, Johnston led his men out of camp early on April 6. General P.G.T. Beauregard. Photograph Courtesy of the National Archives Records Administration Fast Facts: Battle of Shiloh Conflict: Civil War (1861-1865)Dates: April 6-7, 1862Armies Commanders:UnionMajor General Ulysses S. GrantMajor General Don Carlos BuellArmy of West Tennessee - 48,894 menArmy of the Ohio - 17, 918 menConfederateGeneral Albert Sidney JohnstonGeneral Pierre G.T. BeauregardArmy of Mississippi - 44,699 menCasualties:Union: 1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 captured/missingConfederate: 1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded, 959 captured/missing The Confederate Plan Johnstons plan called for the weight of the assault to strike the Union left with the goal of separating it from the Tennessee River and driving Grants army north and west into the swamps of Snake and Owl Creeks. Around 5:15 AM, the Confederates encountered a Union patrol and the fighting began. Surging forward, the corps of Major Generals Braxton Bragg and William Hardee formed a single, long battle line and struck the unprepared Union camps. As they advanced, units became entangled and difficult to control. Meeting with success, the attack drove into the camps as the Union troops attempted to rally. The Confederates Strike Around 7:30, Beauregard, who had been instructed to remain in the rear, sent forward the corps of Major General Leonidas Polk and Brigadier General John C. Breckinridge. Grant, who was downstream at Savannah, TN when the battle began, raced back and reached the field around 8:30. Bearing the brunt of the initial Confederate attack was Brigadier General William T. Shermans division which anchored the Union right. Though forced back, he worked tirelessly to rally his men and mounted a strong defense. Major General John McClernand. Photograph Courtesy of the Library of Congress To his left, Major General John A. McClernands division was also forced to stubbornly give ground. Around 9:00, as Grant was recalling Wallaces division and attempting to hasten the lead division of Buells army, troops from Brigadier Generals W.H.L. Wallaces and Benjamin Prentiss division occupied a strong defensive position in an oak thicket dubbed the Hornets Nest. Fighting valiantly, they repulsed several Confederate attacks as Union troops on either side were forced back. The Hornets Nest held for seven hours and only fell when fifty Confederate guns were brought to bear. Johnston Lost Around 2:30 PM, the Confederate command structure was badly shaken when Johnston was mortally wounded in the leg. Ascending to command, Beauregard continued to push his men forward and Colonel David Stuarts brigade achieved a breakthrough on the Union left along the river. Pausing to reform his men, Stuart failed to exploit the gap and moved his men towards the fighting at the Hornets Nest. With the collapse of the Hornets Nest, Grant formed a strong position extending west from the river and north up the River Road with Sherman on the right, McClernand in the center, and the remnants of Wallace and Brigadier General Stephen Hurlbuts division on the left. Attacking this new Union line, Beauregard had little success and his men were beaten back by heavy fire and naval gunfire support. With dusk approaching, he elected to retire for the night with the goal of returning to the offensive in the morning. Between 6:30-7:00 PM, Lew Wallaces division finally arrived after an unnecessarily circuitous march. While Wallaces men joined the Union line on the right, Buells army began arriving and reinforced his left. Realizing that he now possessed a sizable numerical advantage, Grant planned a massive counterattack for the next morning. Major General Don Carlos Buell. Photograph Courtesy of the Library of Congress Grant Strikes Back Advancing at dawn, Lew Wallaces men opened the attack around 7:00 AM. Pushing south, Grant and Buells troops drove the Confederates back as Beauregard worked to stabilize his lines. Hampered by the previous days intermingling of units, he was not able to form his entire army until around 10:00 AM. Pushing forward, Buells men retook the Hornets Nest by late morning but met strong counterattacks by Breckinridges men. Grinding on, Grant was able to retake his old camps around noon, forcing Beauregard to launch a series of attacks to protect access to the roads leading back to Corinth. By 2:00 PM, Beauregard realized that the battle was lost and began ordering his troops to retreat south. Breckinridges men moved into a covering position, while Confederate artillery was massed near Shiloh Church to protect the withdrawal. By 5:00 PM, most of Beauregards men had departed the field. With dusk approaching and his men exhausted, Grant elected not to pursue. A Terrible Toll The bloodiest battle of the war to date, Shiloh cost the Union 1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 captured/missing. The Confederates lost 1,728 killed (including Johnston), 8,012 wounded, 959 captured/missing. A stunning victory, Grant was initially vilified for being taken by surprise, while Buell and Sherman were hailed as saviors. Pressured to remove Grant, President Abraham Lincoln famously replied, I cant spare this man; he fights. When the smoke of battle cleared, Grant was praised for his cool demeanor in saving the army from disaster. Regardless, he was temporarily relegated to a supporting role when Major General Henry Halleck, Grants immediate superior, took direct command for an advance against Corinth. Grant regained his army that summer when Halleck was promoted to general-in-chief of the Union armies. With Johnstons death, command of the Army of Mississippi was given to Bragg who would lead it in the battles of Perryville, Stones River, Chickamauga, and Chattanooga.

Early Mobilization Following a Stroke Essay

Early Mobilization Following a Stroke Essay Early Mobilization Following a Stroke Essay Issue of mobilization of patients especially those with stroke illness has been a major problem in most hospitals across the globe. The reasons attached to the said lateness have never been set, but concerns have been drawn on the same to establish the contagious situation. Lateness in mobilization sweeps out all the possible benefits if early measures were not put in place. In my essay am going to discuss the possible reasons that drive most clinicians not to take early measure upon stroke patients. The paper focuses on the challenges that face the clinicians in their professional duty and their interaction with the stroke patients (Adler Malone, 2012). Clinical care is very vital to any patient seeking assistance from a center or a personal physician. The service by the professional might be useful or not helpful depending on the urgency and availability of the same. Early mobilization of patients improves the safety of patients during treatment, but this can be dangerous especially for stroke patients. This is because these patients when under medication care normally have safety machines, which when removed during mobilizing patients may cause harm (Adler Malone, 2012). Stroke patients, however, are victims of late attention. This is because these patients undergo varied conditions of sickness and treatment thereof. The outstanding records show very high rates of lateness in the mobilization of stroke patients. This comes out because most of the patients take much longer recovery time than the expected and get neglected due to the negative mentality by the clinicians towards them. Treatment of the disease may require large cash, which may lead to seclusion of the low achievers due to limited cash dispensation. The little intervention towards the said patients by the governing forces has led to the reluctance of the counterpart in caring for the subjects. Due to all these factors, stroke patients end up finding themselves in a situation of late treatment hence the increased incidences of death among the stroke patients.

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Microeconomics - Essay Example t comes about third parties suffer costs or financial consequences following market transactions between other parties involved in the purchase and sale of goods & services. For instance when organization involved in production or manufacture of goods for the market pollutes the environment through release of harmful gasses into the environment, the general public may suffer diseases translating into medical expenses not anticipated. The recent economic crises which resulted from the crash of the banking and mortgages markets translated into escalated prices with financial consequences to the general public. On the other hand a positive externality comes about when market transactions benefit third parties in a way. A good example is when a company invests in research & development which in the end benefits many other companies in the market. In conclusion therefore externalities result into inefficiencies which may eventually lead to market failure i.e. private decisions which are based on the market fail to give efficient and desirable results in the perspective of general welfare. The government therefore intervenes to address the inefficiencies and adverse market effects resulting from the externalities. In cases of negative externalities the government can respond by imposing taxes to the involved parties which equal the amount of harm suffered by others. in response to positive externalities where where social gains exceed private gains, the government can also intervene by subsidizing those generating the social gains with amounts equivalent to what others

Disaster Preparedness Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Disaster Preparedness - Research Paper Example FEMA has functioned as an independent agency that is responsible for the management and response in cases of disasters that overwhelms the state governments. An excellent investigation on FEMA’s responsibilities since its inception until about 2003 was provided by Cumming and Sylves (2005), who outlined the agency’s development, which included policy analysis, an outline of its jurisdiction, and management evaluation. Of particular interest is the study’s emphasis on FEMA’s HAZMATS (hazardous materials)   responsibilities. The authors’ claimed that FEMA has acquired more HAZMATS authority after the 1981 Chernobyl catastrophe in the Soviet Union. (Cumming and Sylves 2005: 23) A more detailed discourse on pre-9/11 disaster preparedness in the US has been comprehensively investigated by Nicholson. For instance, the disaster events from the administration of Reagan to the Clinton regime were outlined and analyzed side by side their policy reactions. ( Nicholson 2005: 33-54) The outcome of the cases handled by FEMA such as the hazardous materials contamination in the Love Canal and the experiences discussed by academics previously have provided the public and the policy network’s interest on disaster preparedness. An important dimension to this point is that the governmental policy has been largely shaped by the need to respond to specific types of crises. When the series of natural calamities hit the US during the 1960s and 1970s. ...(Haddow, Bullock and Coppola 2010: 5) The authors noted that these calamities led to the heightened focus on the national emergency management, which by the end of the 1970s saw five federal departments and agencies, closely coordinating for more efficient disaster response and recovery initiatives. Within this period, three specific developments in disaster preparedness emerge. The first is the passage of the Disaster Relief Act of 1974, which saw the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) taking a more authoritative role in disaster management. Then, there was the creation of the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, tasked with disasters that would result from military and nuclear disasters. All in all, as pointed out by Haddow, Bullock and Coppola, â€Å"taking into account the broad range of risks and potential disasters, more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risk and disasters.† (5) According to Bumgarner, the whole federal disaster preparedness and response program remained disjointed for the most part of the 1970s because there was no specific federal agency â€Å"on point† when it came to disasters since more than a hundred various federal agencies divide the responsibilities among them. (Bumgarner 2008: 7) This changed when the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was established in 1979. Bumgarner explained that FEMA was a consequence of the growing clamor for sufficient and effective disaster preparedness and was created through a wide ranging reorganization that saw several existing federal agencies becoming part of the organization. (7) FEMA has functioned as an independent agency that is responsible for the management and response in cases of

Global operation and supply chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global operation and supply chain - Essay Example nventory can be referred to as the quantity of goods and materials on hand.   A stock includes finished products, goods undergoing production process, and raw materials. The main purpose of inventory management is to keep enough inventories to meet customer demand, maintain independence of operations, allow flexibility in product scheduling and be cost effective (Allen, 2008: 881).   Inventory management usually ensure the availability of raw materials in sufficient quality and quantity, thus it is of great importance to have a proper control and management inventory (Axs.ater, 2010: 1329). Inventory management is necessary as it prevents leakage, deterioration, spoilage and wastage of materials. Its aim is to improve material handling, saving in material cost, increase production and large profits (Allen, 2008: 883). First-In, First-Out method: this is a method of valuing the cost of goods sold that uses the cost of the oldest items in inventory first.   This is based on the assumption that goods that are sold or used first are those goods that are bought first (Axs.ater, 2010: 1330).   Last-In, First-Out method: This is an inventory valuing method that assumes that the last items placed in inventory are the first sold.   Therefore, when the Last in First Out method is applied, the year-end inventory consists of the goods placed in inventory at the beginning of the year, rather than at the end.   During inflation, when prices are rising, this method yields a lower ending inventory, lower gross profit, higher cost of goods sold and a lower taxable income (Anderson and Narus, 2011: 99).   This method is preferred because it reduces a company’s taxes and increases cash flow. Specific Identification method: this is the simplest method of valuing inventories.   The sale of inventory requires the inventory account to be credited or reduced, and cost of goods sold should be debited or increased for the amount paid for each inventory item.   This method works

What determinants affect remittance trends and patterns in Ethiopia

What determinants affect remittance trends and patterns in Ethiopia Migration by its nature has negative impacts to the emigrant countries through brain drain especially to the developing one. (HDR, 2009) states that mobility of skilled human power harms the economy of the origin country especially for small states and poor countries. Apart from the economic point, there are also other associated problems that cant be measured in terms monetary aspects. People move within their country or cross their borders with the hope of getting better opportunities benefiting the people migrating, their families as well as their areas of origin and destination (HDR, 2009). Though it is not an easy task to come through different challenges, there are many people who combine their efforts and talents to expand their opportunities by moving into other better areas. Successful immigrants keep connected with their home country and send what is usually expected from them. The benefits could be direct remittance sent to family or for other purposes and could also be in other multidimensional effects such as technology transfers, brain gain and help strengthen diplomatic efforts in their destination and international stages. (HDR, 2009) argued that moving generally brings benefits most directly in the form of remittance sent to immediate family members, thereby generating jobs for local workers as multiplier effect and behavioural changes in response to ideas from abroad. The benefits even go beyond this by increasing investment level of their origin. Further, the same report states that at the place of origin, impacts can be seen in income and consumption, education, health and broader cultural and social process. Moreover, the macro impact can be visibly seen in the countries foreign currency reserves. This is because foreign currency reserve is one of the most important components for economic growth of developing countries. Murinde, 1993 ac cited in Elsakka and Mcnabb (1999) argued that remittances are major sources of foreign exchange for man y developing countries where its limited availability acts as a major constraint on economic development programmes and stabilization policy. For countries like Ethiopia which witnessed shortage of foreign reserves for the last three years, it is so crucial to think about how national policy can be made favourable for remittance flow. The increase in remittance not only helps in solving the foreign reserve crunch but also contributes to poverty reduction programmes through the increase of consumption at household level, encouraging investment, creating additional savings to the economy and through other multiplier effects. However, too much remittance could make the economy dependent on it which will affect the diversification of the economy for export and production. McCormick and Wahba (2000) argued that one of the drawbacks of remittance for the receiving country could beDutch Diseaseas the economy of the home country can weaken as a result of receiving remittance. Further, the d ependency on remittance could make the economy susceptible to external shocks that could decline the flow of remittance as happened in 2009 global economic downturn. But still remittance has been less volatile to external shocks than other sources of capital such as export, FDI and foreign aid in the same period when there was decline in capital flows to developing countries in the global financial crises. Remittance could be more stable than private capital flows, and that they might even provide a stabilizing element during periods of financial instability (Buch and Kuckulenz, 2004). In anyway, for countries like Ethiopia which badly needs capital inflows, this shouldnt be a concern as the country is suffering from shortage of foreign currency reserve for importing basic and capital goods. Further, dependency on remittance wouldnt be a threat as the country is progressing economically by diversifying its exports and attracting more FDI ever. Recipients however should also consider the availability of these funds could develop a continuing trend of migration of working age population (ibid: 2004). Remittance therefore could be incentives for the working age population and for the educated ones to migrate which in turn affects the overall growth of the economy in the long run. The main focus of this study will be on matters associated with remittance and its determinants. International remittances refer to the money and goods that are transmitted to households by migrant workers outside their origin countries (World Bank). The Remittance industry is one of the multi-billion industries in the world which helps countries get foreign currency from different sources abroad. The volume of remittance flow is increasing in many folds from year to year especially starting from the 1990s. The amount has shown an increase of ____fold from __ in _____to 316 billion USD in 2009 (WB, 2009). Globalization, decreasing cost of transfers and the increase in technology usage in the business could contribute for the faster increase in the flow. Remittances have been identified as the third pillar of development as their volume is second to foreign direct investment and higher than overseas development assistance.  [1]  Remittance enables income redistribution between persons and across sectors, increases consumption in excess of locally generated income and is used as source of additional capital fund (Lucas and Stark, 1985). It is for this big reason that governments have been taking different initiatives for increasing the proportion of capital flows to their account and actually the business has increased tremendously for the last few years. Its importance is inevitable especially for those developing countries which often suffer due to short of hard currency. Since 2008, developing countries have experienced foreign currency crises which in some of them resulted in shutting down businesses, high inflation, increasing the poverty level which in turn led to clashes between government and ordinary people. The World Banks official data shows that remittance flows to developing countries reached $316 billion in 2009, down 6% from $336 billion in 2008 but is expected to increase by 6.2% to $335 billion in 2010 (World Bank, 2010). Unofficial remittances are believed to be large enough to underestimate the figure of the total remittance flow. Howe ver, Official Development Assistance was three times less than the above figure at the same period. This is not to underestimate the volume of ODA given to developing countries, but to show how much attention is given to ODA than to remittances as sources of capital flows. The same data sources (WB and ODA figures) reveal similar trends for Africa. Some studies on this issue show that remittances have direct implications for the development of developing countries both in household and national level. However, some countries are not giving that much emphasis for changing and increasing remittance flow to their country; if taken, the initiatives are not enough to bring change. Ethiopia like any other developing country needs remittance flow to its account so as to help the countrys overall development. It is one of the countries which passed critical times since 2008 due to hard currency crunch. Still there is no guarantee for this problem. For passing these hard times, the country has been dependent on foreign aid from the IMF to stabilize its economy.  [2]  Further the country has also been one of the main recipients of foreign aid from other sources. Ethiopia stands third next to Iraq and Afghanistan on the list of ODA recipient by taking 3% of the total Official Development Assistance given to developing countries in 2008 (ODA, 2010). This doesnt include the capital flow from China and India which they are becoming another source of capital for Ethiopia and other African countries. However, capital flows to Ethiopia through remittances is very low when compared with the ODA and other unofficial foreign assistance. Official data from the WB shows th at remittance flow was 387 and 383 million USD in 2008 and 2009 respectively. And this flow accounts 1.5% of the GDP as of 2008.  [3]  Even with simple comparison, the remittance flow is four times as low as the amount Kenya receives from the same business. The flow of remittance to Kenya was 1692 and 1572 billion USD in 2008 and 2009 respectively.  [4]  This comparison only shows the gross flow of remittance to Ethiopia and Kenya as my main intention is to look how low the flow to Ethiopia is. To the contrary, in 2005, Ethiopian stock of emigrants was 445,926 and that of Kenya was 427, 324 (WB factbook, 2008) which makes Ethiopia advantageous over the number of people living abroad. There can be other factors that determine remittance flow; however, Ethiopia at least should have benefited more from the gross remittance flow than Kenya depending on the stock of emigrants which the actual trend is the reverse. Even without comparison with any country, the remittance flow to E thiopia is very small. What triggered me to deal with this issue is that; first, the flow of remittance to Ethiopia is much lower than from what I expected. Second, as can be seen from the above comparison with Kenya which they lay in the same geographical, social, economical and political standard in many aspects, Kenya suppressed its East African competitor by four fold in the gross remittance flow and actually Ethiopia should have been benefited more. Third, what is the reason behind this? Where the difference does lays, from the Ethiopian Diaspora or from the national policy? My aim in this study is to look into what are the determinants that made remittance to Ethiopia so low by mainly focusing on the Ethiopian Diasporas patterns of remitting. Research questions: The research problem is already explained above. To deal with the research problem, this study will focuses on the following research questions: What are the determinants that affect remittance trends and patterns of the Ethiopian immigrants in Sweden? What are the factors that affect remittance flows to Ethiopia? What makes remittance flows to Ethiopia very small? Is it in the national policy related to remittance and capital flows or it is in Ethiopian immigrants? How can this business work better for Ethiopia as source of hard currency? Methodology: The study will apply qualitative method for investigating the research questions. This method is selected based on the appropriateness to the research issues considering the effectiveness of the method to investigate research questions in depth and suitability to the phenomenon. Controversies have raged over the appropriateness of research methods in the social science as whether to use qualitative or other methods (Mikkelsen, 2004:141). Flick, (2009:15) discussed that in scientific discipline; methods become the point of reference for checking the suitability of ideas and issues for empirical investigation and should be appropriately selected and applied. Moreover, the method helps in exploring the actual explanation of facts behind the research problem. However, making generalization based on the findings is difficult as the samples taken for the study are limited in proportion for the intended generalization. (Flick, 2009: 122) asserted that generalization is not in every case the goal of qualitative study. Qualitative study typically focuses on compiling a selection of micro-level case studies which are investigated using a combination of informal interviews, participant observation (Dessai and Potter, 2006:118). It could also include exploring policy documents and other material for complementary purposes. In order to facilitate these all, a case study will be used. This is because case study helps the study to be more specific on the key aspects and focus on the issue. Thus, the research will use Ethiopian immigrants in Stockholm, Sweden as a case study. The target group will be Ethiopians living in Sweden as the writer is also living in Sweden and at the same time Sweden is one of the top favorable destinations of Ethiopian immigrants (Sweden is within top 10 as a stock to Ethiopian immigrants). Interview with selected Ethiopian immigrants in Stockholm will be used for collecting data along with other secondary materials. Semi-structured and open ended q uestions will be prepared for the interviews so as to use the advantage of high degree of flexibility during the interview. Different themes will be created while preparing the interviews so as to structure the different issues and aspects on the remittance trends of the specific interviewee. Sampling Different sampling methods are combined depending on the particular dimension of the issue being considered: different purposive sampling techniques, identification of key informants who possess the particular knowledge sought and also random encounters to cross-check information or highlight yet more differing perspectives on the same problem (Dessai and Potter, 2006:118). By doing so, the researcher will select the appropriate people or target group which will enable the study in getting reliable information. The study will use purposive sampling and key informant selection for interview. The sample will include both male and female interviewees; it will also consider taking those who have investment in Ethiopia and those who dont have, this is because investment is one factor that could affect money flow. In addition to this, the sample will consist people of different backgrounds. Apart from these interviewees, one interview will be held with the head of the economic affairs of E thiopian embassy official if the embassy allows. This will give another perspective to the study. Theoretical framework Theory increases our awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data. Without making theory explicit, it is easy to fall into the trap of hazy thinking, faulty logic, and imprecise concepts (Mikkelsen, 2004:156). Indeed, theory helps us to have better understanding of the study prior to the start of the project and connect the findings of the research with the existing knowledge of the issue. It is also sound to link the theory with the empirics of the study throughout the research process. For this big reason the research will use a theoretical framework which suits with the study. The literature available on the subject, determinants of remittance flows from emigrants has almost developed into two thoughts viz. the micro-economic and the macro-economic factors which it meant that most studies have been made on micro-level and macro-level. (Lucas and Stark, 1985; Lucas and Stark, 1988 ; Agarwal and Horowitz, 2002; Adams, 2008; Dustmann and Mestres, 2008; Gupta and Hedge, 2009) could be studies that support the micro-economic thought and (El-sakka and Mcnabb, 1999; Buch and Kuckulenz 2004; Higgins et al, 2004 and Ratha, 2003 ) could be in support of the macro-economic factors. These two theories give their own explanations on what affects the migrants behavior in remitting. For instance, (Lucas and Stark, 1985) in giving the initial model for the micro-economic theory of remittance argued that emigrants are motivated for remitting due to many reasons ranging from pure altruism to self interest including mutual agreements between migrants and family. Moreover, th e models did show that migrants are said to be altruistic if the flow of remittance increased with a decline in family income back home; whilst, if remittance flows are directly related with the family income back home, then they are said to be self-motivated (ibid, 1985). Beyond these two pure factors of altruism and self-interest, (Lucas and Stark, 1985) have also discussed tempered altruism and enlightened self-interest to refer to the remittance motivated by a combination of altruism and self-interest. The combination is meant to show the possibility of remitting based on contractual agreements made between the migrant and the family back home so as to get mutual benefits. Independently after almost two decades of the above theory of Lucas and Stark, (Agarwal and Horowitz, 2002) pointed out that the two primary incentives explored in the remittance literature are altruism and risk sharing (some sort of self interest according to Lucas and Stark, 1985) which is similar concepts t o other literatures but slightly different. In the same theoretical explanation, however, (Quinn, 2005 as cited in Niimi et al, 2009) in contrast, suggested another model of remittance behavior whereby remittance are treated as both consumption transfer to households and as alternative saving mechanism for migrants. Many immigrants use the alternative saving mechanism when they think that they will be back to their country of origin some day in the future. Under such circumstances, immigrants want to own fixed assets that will help them live without any problem upon return. Though it is not usual to see immigrants returning to their country of origin; this increases the flow of remittance. (Dustmann and Mestres, 2008) contended that immigrants return policy increases the probability of remitting more motivated by holding assets and savings in home country for future purposes. Similarly, remittances are also attached with household consumption especially in the altruism concept so as to take care of family in origin country. Depending on these theoretical arguments, it can be said that income of both the household back home and the migrant determines how the remittance flow could be. Income of the migrants has many factors that could affect which otherwise would contribute the lion share in determining how to remit. Buch and Kuckulenz (2004) claimed that microeconomic factors such as education and income level of the migrant and his family are the main determinants of remittance. Briere et al (2002) and Agarwal, Buch and Kuckulenz (2004) also found that migrants destination, gender and household composition are the other factors that affect the flow of remittances. Adams, Guptaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. On the other hand, at the macro-level, factors operating in both the host and the country of origin will affect the flow of remittance (El-sakka and Mcnabb, 1999). However, for countries who would like to maximize the capital inflow it looks difficult to frame policies based on the different factors of the host country as it is out of their control. Indeed, the factors in the host country are important components behind the motivation of the remitter as these factors affect the remitters income status. These are related with economics nature of the host country which have direct impact upon wages earned by the migrants and this in turn will determine their won consumption and saving behavior and thus the potential amount to be remitted. This type of experience can be easily found from the 2009 global financial crises which affected the income of migrants and eventually decreased the capital inflow to developing countries. The decrease in remittance to developing countries in this per iod has bitterly affected those countries which depend on remittance for their national foreign currency reserve. This gave these countries a message to review their remittance related policies and diversify their source of capital funds. El-sakka and Mcnabb, (1999) suggested that macro-economic factors such as interest rates, exchange rates and political instability of the country of origin affects the behavior of remitters. Accordingly, they argue that macro-economic factors should be suitable enough so as to encourage remittance flows to the country of origin. For these reasons countries would like to make exchange rates competitive by depreciating their own currencies with the intention of attracting more capital inflows, but sometimes it is associated with risk of bringing high inflation rate for the country. El-sakka and Mcnabb, (1999) on their part argued that higher inflation could discourage the flow of remittance as higher inflation rate could be a sign of economic and pol itical instability. To curb such associated problems, therefore, different variables should be taken into consideration while framing remittance related policy. On the other hand, empirical analysis using data from Egypt shows that remittance flows are responsive to interest rate and exchange rate differentials (ibid, 1985). Attractive interest and exchange rates would eventually lead immigrants to think of investing their money in their home country. Ratha (2003) also suggested that macroeconomic policies of the country of origin matter a lot whether remittances are to be invested or not. If remittances are encouraged to be invested, there is better chance for the economy to get more than two benefits from the same source. Interest rate differential between country of origin and host country, government domestic policies, wages, political risk factors and the rate of inflation determines remittance flows (Buch and Kuckulenz 2004). Since the aim of the study is to find out the factors that determine the patterns and trends of remittance flow; the two approaches can contribute some from different perspectives in framing the better solution for the research question. Off course, both the micro and macro level factors focus on the individual behavior of the remitter from personal experience and from national policy perspective. The personal experiences are those factors that affect at the micro-level: whilst, the national policy factors are those at macro-level factors that contribute in determining the individuals behavior in remitting. However, in most literatures the advocates of each approach neither discussed nor ruled out the counter ideas. For instance, the micro-economic theorists didnt discuss the possibility of macro-economic factors and the same goes for the macro-level theorists. This makes difficult to uncover the exact relationship of each theory and what they actually think of each other. For instan ce, Buch and Kuckulenz (200) argued that the main problem of microeconomic case studies is that they tend to undervalue the macroeconomic impact of remittance by focusing on isolated communities. (reference for combined studies). Thus, this study will have the chance to investigate this problem by looking into both approaches at the same time and adding up other perspectives beyond the economic theorization. The two theories focuses on the economic determinants of remittance, however, this study will go beyond this and touches other aspects that affects the patterns and trends of remittance flow. The study will also add another perspective to the remittance literature by going deep using qualitative method of studies. This is because most studies on this business have been made using quantitative method. This means, this theoretical framework adds other variables such as cultural, social and political factors that affect the flow of remittance. In a different perspective, Elbadawi and Rocha (1992) discussed concerning motivations to remit as two broad approaches viz. the endogenous which is based on the social and human aspects that cause remittance and the exogenous which is based on only the economic aspects.

Power of the Medical Monks Essay -- Sharp Pain, Machine Gun

Sharp pain. You look down and see a spreading patch of red. You know the end is near as you drop to the ground. Your rifle landing next to you. BANG! The men around you fire and advanced. This land has been at war with itself for a year. In the distance you see the gray uniforms of the Confederates. Next its all black. You awaken to see a lull in the fighting as two men pick you up on a litter and carry you to the waiting Carriage. While Napoleon’s personal surgeon Dominique-Jean Larrey, invented the â€Å"flying ambulance† the worlds first modern version of a ambulance service.(5) True battlefield medicine, and in correlation to this true EMS, did not begin until Dr. Letterman established the three tier battlefield medical system(1). This comprised of an aid station, the patient would then be transferred to a field hospital, and finally a regular hospital. This system revolutionary at the time of design(civil war) increased survival rates, and started to promptly provide medical care. (3) At the beginning and before the civil war there was little in the way of Sanitary practices. There was also little in the way of an actual Medical corp. The surgeon general at the time, Thomas Lawson no M.D., thought that sanitary practices were â€Å"unnecessary† at that his methods were â€Å"adequate and effective†. Lawson attained this position through seniority before being impeached through public opinion. Following his impeachment then allowed for the creation of the Sanitary Commission(early form of the Red Cross), as well as the implementation of Dr. Letterman’s three tiered approach. If it wasn’t for innovations like these our entire medical practice would be years behind what it is.(1) Rat-a-tat-tat, Rat-a-tat-tat. The sharp crack of machine ... ...imited than that of non-military M.D‘s or D.O.’s. Most military doctors are trained in multiple disciplines. The main reason for this is due to the instability of there responsibilities. A M.D. in the military can be treating mal-nourishment one minute, and rapid hemorrhaging the next. Combat Medics skill set hasn’t changed much; however, now there trained in some psychology. Military Medicine has a long and noble history filled with twists, and turns. Today practicing medicine in the military has allowed us to bring more men and woman home from combat; A standard that, while sadly exists, is welcome. Military health professionals prove a vital and necessary service, one that goes unsung. Today military medical professionals are warrior monks on the battlefield, they practice a peaceful art in a dangerous area. Saving the lives of everyone regardless of creed.

Culture and Its Importance

Journal of Management Development Emerald Article: Do Cultural Differences Make a Business Difference? : Contextual Factors Affecting Cross-cultural Relationship Success Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Richard Ian Corn Article information: To cite this document: Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Richard Ian Corn, (1994),†Do Cultural Differences Make a Business Difference? : Contextual Factors Affecting Cross-cultural Relationship Success†, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13 Iss: 2 pp. 5 – 23 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. oi. org/10. 1108/02621719410050219 Downloaded on: 26-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 30 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 26 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com This document has been downloaded 3632 times since 2005. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: * Rosabeth Moss Kanter, (2004),†The challenges of leadership: Interview with Rosabeth Moss Kanter †, Strategic Direction, Vol. 0 Iss: 6 pp. 7 – 10 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/02580540410533190 Rosabeth Moss Kanter, 1997†³Strategies for success in the new global economy: An interview with Rosabeth Moss Kanter†, Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 25 Iss: 6 pp. 20 – 26 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/eb054603 Martin E. Smith, (2003),†Changing an organisation's culture: correlates of success and failure†, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 24 Iss: 5 pp. 249 – 261 http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/01437730310485752 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Em erald www. emeraldinsight. om With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. Related content and download information correct at time of download. Do Cultural Differences Make a Busines s Difference? Contextual Factors Affecting Cros s-cultural Relationship Succes s Rosabeth Moss Kanter and Richard Ian Corn Harvard Business School, Boston, Massachusetts, U S A I think Turks are Turks, and they are very different from Canadians, or North Americans or Brits or whatever. But when I went to Turkey, I was dealing with some Turks who had been dealing with Canadians for 10-15 years; they understood us and had adapted to our ways.Yes, they were still Turks, but they knew what Canadians expected. And they knew Canadians very well, so they forgave us when we made faux pas, they understood that we like Christmas Day off. They were patient and gave us a year to understand them. Cultural Differences 5 Canadian executive, describing experiences in his company’s joint venture in Turkey Of course, initially there were apprehensions about being bought by foreigners. Foreigners to us is anyone outside the local community.American executive, describing his company’s acquisition by a British company In Search of Cultural Differences As economies globalize and organizations increasingly form cross-border relationships, there is a resurgence of interest in the management problems caused by national cultural differences – in values, ideologies, organizational assumptions, work practices, and behavioural styles – spawning research reminiscent of national character studies following the Second World War.Recent findings about the cultural propensities of major countries appear robust, replicated in surveys of the values of managers[1-3], as well as used to explain institutional patterns within countries[4]. Such findings are often consistent with stereotypes evoked by managers to explain others and themselves. Cultural generalizations roll easily off the tongues of people in our studies. For example: several Europeans predicted problems Volvo and Renault could have in combining Volvo’s Swedish egalitarianism with Renault’s French hierarchy.A German executive working in a French-American alliance commented that Germans and Americans had more values in common than either did with the French, invoking this as an Important contributions to the case studies and interviews for this paper by Kalman Applbaum, Pamela Yatsko, Madelyn Yucht, Paul Myers, Clau dia de Dominicis, Tom Hughes, Liska Ouellette, Saba Hapte-Selassie and Thuy Tranthi are gratefully acknowledged, as is the support of the Division of Research of the Harvard Business School. Copyright 1993 by R. M. Kanter and R. I. Corn. Used by permission. Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13 No. 2, 1994 pp. 5-23. MCB University Press, 0262-1711 Journal of Management Development 13,2 6 explanation for why an American sent to London to lead the integration team was viewed as incompetent by the French partner for failing to make authoritative decisions[5]. Furthermore, people often assume cultural heterogeneity creates tensions for organizations.Managers, even within a single country, often prefer homogeneity to heterogeneity, because shared experiences and culture are a basis for trust[6]. Yet, while national cultural differences clearly exist at some level of generality, it is more difficult to specify how the presence of such differences affects organizational and managerial effectiveness. Evidence and observations in a range of situations raise questions about the usefulness of the â€Å"cultural differences† approach for managers. For example: ?When people of different national cultures interact, they can be remarkably adaptable, as in the Japanese history of borrowing practices from other countries[7]. And even though it is supposedly more difficult for managers to operate outside their home culture, multinational companies have long succeeded even when expatriate managers make mistakes. Many industrial firms have operated successfully in foreign countries while showing insensitivity towards local values or treating host-country personnel less well than home-country personnel[8]. Technical orientation can override national orientation. There is evidence that similar educational experiences – e. g. for managers or technical professionals – erase ideological differences; those within the same profession tend to espouse similar val ues regardless of nationality[9,10]. At Inmarsat, an international satellite consortium owned by companies from over 60 countries and staffed at its London headquarters by 55 nationalities, differences between functions were a greater source of conflict than differences between nationalities.Although stereotypes abounded (â€Å"Spaniards are often late†; â€Å"Indians like to talk†), engineers who shared a technical orientation quickly adjusted to each other’s foibles – easily enough that a training programme on cross-cultural management was poorly attended[11]. ? Tensions between organizations which seem to be caused by cultural differences often turn out, on closer examination, to have more significant structural causes. A Scottish construction company had difficulty in its first international partnership with a French company.The failure was widely explained by employees as caused by differences between a â€Å"beer culture† and a â€Å"wine cu lture†. Its next partnership with a Dutch company was more effective, supposedly because of the greater compatibility with the Dutch. But in the first partnership, the companies set up many â€Å"dealbusters†[12], from letting lawyers negotiate for executives, to ignoring assumptions about future business strategy. In the second case, they learned from their mistakes and changed the way they worked with their partner. National cultures had little to do with failure in the first instance and success in the second. Cultural value issues – and issues of â€Å"difference† in general – are more apparent at early stages of relationships than later, before people came to know each other more holistically. And outsiders of any kind, even from the next neighbourhood, can seem different. But once people get to know each other beyond first impressions, relationship dynamics are often determined by power rather than culture. Resistance to the new American chief executive of a British retailer was resistance to change, not to culture differences.National culture issues were simply one more piece of learning as he moved from outsider to insider; they did not affect his ability to do his work of managing a fast and successful turnaround[13]. ? Central country value tendencies are often reported at a very high level of generality, as on average over large populations themselves far from homogeneous. Thus, they fail to apply to many groups and individuals within those countries. There are strong individual, regional, and ethnic differences within countries that are masked by the attempt to find country patterns.For example, an American who had served in Japan during the Second World War liked the docile women he saw there. He decided to marry a Japanese woman, only to discover after the marriage that she came from the one part of Japan that encouraged assertive, dominant women. And not only are there individual as well as ethnic differences wi thin countries, but individuals themselves derive their behaviour from many influences and can hold multiple identities. The chairman of Matra Hachette in Paris calls himself â€Å"a Gascon, a Frenchman, and a European†. Finally, group cultural tendencies are always more apparent from outside than inside the group. Indeed, people often only become aware of their own value or culture in contrast to someone perceived as an outsider[6]. The British writer George Orwell observed that national identity and cultural similarity is salient only for those returning from abroad or when the country is threatened; otherwise, people hold firmly to their individuality and are more aware of differences among those within the same nation.For these reasons, then, we wondered about the circumstances under which cross-cultural interaction would affect business performance. The Foreign Acquisitions Study To learn more about managerial issues provoked by cultural differences, we looked for situat ions in which cross-cultural interactions might produce organizational tensions. Kanter’s studies of international strategic alliances and joint ventures, reported in a series of Harvard case studies and articles[14], had uncovered a large number of strains between cross-border partners, but most of Cultural Differences 7Journal of Management Development 13,2 8 these involved strategic, organizational, political, or financial issues. But perhaps that was because the relationship between venture or alliance partners is assumed to be one of relative equality and independence; each partner retains its own cultural identity as well as control over its own operations, co-operating with the other for limited purposes while insulating core activities from the relationship. We looked for another test in the realm of foreign acquisitions, in which cultural differences would perhaps play a greater role.Foreign acquisitions of US companies increased over the last decade. In 1990, 446 su ch deals, valued at $46. 2 billion, were completed, compared with only 126 deals valued at $4. 6 billion in 1982. Foreign acquisitions of US companies accounted for 28. 1 per cent of the total value of merger and acquisition activity involving at least one company in 1990, compared with only 7. 6 per cent in 1982[15]. This acquisition situation, we proposed, would heighten American managers’ awareness of their own culture and its contrast to the acquirer’s culture, as they merged operations or shifted control over decisions.Since American companies were more accustomed to acquiring foreign operations than being acquired, the â€Å"reversal of roles† experienced when being acquired would perhaps exaggerate tensions enough to bring cultural issues to the surface. Therefore, we developed a pilot project with eight companies. T he Companies Approximately 75 interviews with senior and middle managers were conducted by Harvard Business School teams in 1992 and 1993 at eight mid-sized New England-based American companies which had been acquired by foreign companies in the period between mid-1987 and 1990 (with one exception acquired in 1984).All companies had enough experience with the foreign parent to provide time for cross-cultural contact to occur and any problems to surface; but the acquisition was also recent enough for managers to have fresh memories. The circumstances surrounding the acquisitions differed in some respects. One was a strictly arms-length financial investment in which a well-known sporting goods manufacturer was acquired by a Venezuelan financial group as its only US holding in a leveraged buyout from investors who had acquired it two years earlier; as long as profits were high, there was minimal contact with the parent.In two other cases, there was a history of relationships between the foreign parent and the acquired company prior to the acquisition: a familyowned retailer had developed a business partnership with a large r but also family-owned British chain four years before the acquisition as part of a succession plan; and a metals manufacturer had formed a number of joint ventures with a Japanese conglomerate beginning seven years before the acquisition, turning to its Japanese partner as a defensive tactic against a hostile takeover threat.Other acquisitions also stemmed from financial distress: an armaments manufacturer was bought by a British conglomerate after the US company faltered under a sequence of four different American owners; an abrasives manufacturer was bought by a French company as a â€Å"white knight† in a takeover battle with a British company; and a US retailer was sold to a Japanese retailer when it no longer fit its US manufacturing company parent’s strategy. In many of the cases, then, foreign acquirers were sought by the US companies to solve a problem.Two of the companies, given the pseudonyms Metalfab and Hydrotech, were observed by the second author in par ticular depth. Both were engineeringoriented manufacturing companies with operations primarily in the US and annual sales between $100 and $200 million. Both were previously owned by financially-troubled US parents whose core business was in a different industry, and both were bought by well-respected, internationally-experienced companies in the same industry.Corn conducted 30 interviews at Metalfab, a manufacturer of fabricated metal products acquired about five years earlier by Fabritek, pseudonym for a Swedish manufacturer in the same business. He also conducted 21 interviews at Hydrotech, a designer and manufacturer of hydraulic systems acquired about three years earlier by Gruetzi, pseudonym for a German-Swiss manufacturer of industrial energy systems.But while Metalfab was acquired by a company of similar size and was operating at a pretax profit, Hydrotech’s new parent was much larger and more diversified geographically and technologically, and Hydrotech was accumulat ing significant losses. Cultural Differences 9 Overview of the Findings The interviews at all eight companies focused on the history of the companies’ relationships, their business situations and business strategies, the amount and kind of cross-cultural contact between managers, difficulties and how they had been resolved, and any organizational changes which had come about as a result of the merger.We expected cultural differences to play a prominent role in the dynamics of the integration, especially because so many questions probed these issues specifically – from asking for characterizations of â€Å"typical† American and parent country managers to comparing managerial styles in concrete situations. (The study was thus â€Å"biased† towards finding cultural differences and tensions because of them. ) We expected many difficulties to arise, necessitating many organizational changes, and we expected American companies to resist learning from their fore ign company parents.We also expected some combinations to be more volatile than others, such as the Japanese-American interactions, either because of prejudice or because of values and style differences. We found, instead, that nationality-based culture was one of the less significant variables affecting the integration of the companies and their organizational effectiveness. We found that relatively few issues or problems arose which could be labelled â€Å"cultural†, even though managers were able to identify style differences easily that fit common cultural patterns.We also found that very few measures were taken to facilitate cultural integration. Only a moderate number of difficulties were encountered or organizational changes Journal of Management Development 13,2 10 necessitated, and US companies learned from their foreign parents. Furthermore, there was no discernable pattern of cultural compatibility; all nationalities worked well with their American acquisitions. In general, mergers and acquisitions create significant stress on organizational members, as separate organizational cultures and strategies are blended, ven within one country[12]. Differences in national cultures are assumed to add another layer of complexity to the merger process. But our findings suggest that contextual factors play the dominant role in determining the smoothness of the integration, the success of the relationship, and whether or not cultural differences become problematic. These findings lead us to conclude that the significance of cultural differences between employees or managers of different nationalities has been overstated.Cultural values or national differences are used as a convenient explanation for other problems, both interpersonal and organizational, such as a failure to respect people, group power and politics, resentment at subordination, poor strategic fit, limited organizational communication, or the absence of problem-solving forums. Such differen ces are invoked as explanations for the uncomfortable behaviour of others when people have limited contact or knowledge of the context behind the behaviour.Culture versus Context as an Explanatory Factor Most interviewees were able to identify a number of ways in which they differed â€Å"culturally† from their foreign colleagues in values, interpersonal style, and organizational approach. Many of these â€Å"fit† the position of countries on dimensions Hofstede[1] identified, especially power distance and individualism/ collectivism. The first difference issue mentioned, however, was an objective one: Language problems. A majority of Americans found the difficulty in overcoming language differences with all but the British acquirers to be the biggest â€Å"negative† surprise of their respective mergers.One American at Metalfab stated that â€Å"during initial meetings, we assumed that when we spoke English to the Swedes and they nodded their heads, they unders tood what we were saying. Now we realize the nods only meant that they heard the words†. Employees at Metalfab and Hydrotech also recalled meetings in which their foreign colleagues would agree to adopt some new procedure, â€Å"only to go right back to doing things the same old way as soon as they left the meeting†. American employees noted cultural differences in decision-making styles.Many argued that their foreign parents’ management team took a longer-term view. Americans at Hydrotech and Metalfab routinely expressed frustration with the unwillingness of German-Swiss and Swedish managers to make decisions without a great deal of analysis. Europeans noted the American reputation for fast, less thoughtful decisions. A British manager involved in the armaments company acquisition said, â€Å"Unlike American companies which manage by quarterly numbers, we at UK headquarters base our strategy and business policies on long-term positioning†.American intervi ewees also identified a number of differences in interpersonal style between themselves and their foreign colleagues which they attributed to national culture. The Swiss were described as â€Å"very orderly and efficient†, the Swedes were universally described as being very serious. British managers were described as less emotional, less community-oriented, more deliberate, and much less likely to â€Å"shoot from the hip† than Americans. Europeans were described by nearly all American employees as being more formal, less open and outgoing, and slower to form friendships than are Americans.Japanese managers were described as very courteous and polite. Several Metalfab employees stated that the Swedes were much more likely to argue with each other publicly than were Americans. One American official recalled that in the early days of the merger, he and an American colleague would stare at each other in board meetings while the Swedes argued among themselves. The American manager claimed that his American colleagues would have been much more likely to discuss such differences privately.The Swedes were also described as having less respect for authority and greater willingness to confront their superiors publicly than are Americans – signs of low power distance in Hofstede’s terms. Other employees stated that Swedish managers are not as â€Å"results-oriented† as Americans when it comes to running meetings, ending meetings without a resolution or an understanding of the next steps. Swedes were described by several American employees as very critical, both of themselves and others.One American manager stated that â€Å"Americans are taught that it is more constructive to give pats on the back than to focus entirely on shortcomings as the Swedes are inclined to do†. In short, most of those interviewed found differences between themselves and their foreign colleagues to be clearly identifiable and immediately noticeable follo wing their respective mergers. Employees attributed a majority of these differences to national culture. But a closer analysis of these responses reveals a tendency for employees to attribute to culture differences which are more situationally-driven.For example, several employees stated the Swedes were unwilling or incapable of adjusting their planning and forecasting assumptions in light of changes in the environment, that the Swedes were more determined than are Americans, to meet old budget targets. This may reflect the fact that as parent, the Swedes and German-Swiss have the ultimate responsibility for financial results. Similarly, slower decision making may reflect the fact that the Swedish parent involves more people in the decision-making process than does its American subsidiary.Of course, the use of greater participation may itself reflect differences in values between Americans and Swedes, but it may also reflect differences in the organizational culture of parent and su bsidiary or in country-specific industry practices. Senior managers generally had more direct contact with the foreign parent and thus more contextual information. They were much more likely to identify differences in business context that explained apparent differences in â€Å"cultural values†. Senior executives at the American retailer acquired by a British company attributed differences in management practices to differences inCultural Differences 11 Journal of Management Development 13,2 12 business environments in the US and UK. For example, the British company appeared to be less interested in people and more interested in facilities. But this was because its operating expenses tended to be weighted more towards rent than to labour, because British supermarkets were typically located in expensive urban areas, whereas in the US supermarkets were generally found outside the commercial core of the city, and US chains had unions which drove up labour costs.There was also a tendency for American employees to attribute interpersonal difficulties with foreign colleagues to cultural differences without recognizing that Americans act in much the same way. There are recent public examples of American board meetings interrupted by public bickering. The popularity of the view that committees rarely accomplish anything similarly attests to the fact that Europeans are not the only ones who have difficulty establishing clear agendas in their meetings.Finally, in the US, American employees frequently complain about superiors who rarely hand out constructive criticism. In sum, Americans were routinely able to identify a number of differences between themselves and their foreign colleagues, but the attribution of these differences to nationality often seemed to be misdirected. Additionally, in many cases, these differences are more suggestive of perception than of reality. Perhaps it was more convenient to attribute differences to culture than to context because o f the popularity of national character stereotypes.The role of national stereotypes was made clear in contrasting what American managers said about their own foreign acquirers (whom they knew well) compared with other nationalities (which they knew less well). An American senior executive at the sporting goods manufacturer had highly positive things to say about his Venezuelan parent, calling Venezuelans â€Å"lovable, amiable, showing a high degree of concern for people†. In contrast, he said, â€Å"The companies you do not want to have take you over are the Germans and the Japanese. They feel they know how to do it better and just come in and take over†.But the companies in our study acquired by Japanese and German-Swiss parents reported just the opposite – that the Japanese, for example, were eager to learn from the American companies they acquired. In short, the greater the experience with managers from another country, the less reliance on negative stereoty pes. Furthermore, while many interviewees were able to identify behavioural style differences between American managers and their foreign parents, they also spoke of cultural compatibilities in values, business strategies, and organizational approach. Such similarities overrode style differences.Both retailers in the pilot study, for example, spoke of the common concerns and philosophies they shared with their foreign parent – one Japanese, one British. Finally, just because people could point to differences, that did not mean that the differences had operational consequences. Interviewees were asked to assess the extent to which cross-cultural differences created difficulties in the relationship between parent and subsidiary. Interestingly, many employees felt that although differences exist between their cultures, such differences did not create significant problems for employees.This finding cuts to the heart of this study’s central question: if cultural differences between a parent and subsidiary do not necessarily lead to significant inter-organizational conflict, what factors moderate the relationship between cultural heterogeneity and organizational conflict? Why do American employees of foreign companies feel that cultural differences between their own firm and their foreign parent have not been particularly problematic? Here, our findings suggest that a number of contextual factors act as mediators in determining whether or not these differences will be problematic.Contextual Factors as Key Determinants of Cros s-cultural Relationship Succes s Six factors emerged in the pilot study that accounted for the ease with which the merger was implemented and the relatively few difficulties attributed to national cultural differences: (1) the desirability of the relationship, especially in contrast to recent experiences of the acquired companies; (2) business compatibility between the two companies, especially in terms of industry and organizatio n; (3) the willingness of the acquirer to invest in the continued performance of the acquiree and to allow operational autonomy while performance improved; (4) mutual respect and communication based on that respect; (5) business success; and (6) the passage of time. Cultural Differences 13 Relationship Desirability The first issue sets the stage for whether the relationship begins with a positive orientation. When people are in distress, poorly-treated in previous relationships, have had positive experiences with their foreign rescuer, and play a role in initiating relationship discussions, they are much more likely to view the relationship as desirable and work hard to accommodate to any differences in cultural style so that the relationship succeeds. First, almost all of the companies in the pilot study were acquired by foreigners after a period of financial distress.A Hydrotech employee said, â€Å"Everyone here was aware of the firm’s financial problems at the time of th e acquisition. News of the purchase was viewed favourably. Gruetzi kept our doors from being padlocked. Everyone recognized that without Gruetzi, Hydrotech might not have made it†. While Metalfab did not have Hydrotech’s financial problems at the time of its acquisition, its employees took comfort from Fabritek’s strong financial condition at the time of the takeover. The abrasives company was rescued by its French acquirer as a â€Å"white knight in a takeover battle†. In all these cases, people were thus more likely to view their Journal of Management Development 13,2 14 acquirers as saviours than villains. Cultural problems were therefore not problematic.When asked to describe their initial reaction to the acquisitions, interviewees in several companies began with a description of how difficult life had been under its former parent. Several foreign parents in our study therefore compared favourably with each subsidiary’s former US parents. Hydrot ech and Metalfab’s former parents had neither understood the business of its subsidiary nor shown any desire to invest in their subsidiary’s long-term growth. The armaments company had four recent owners, several of whom stripped corporate assets and art collections, an experience one manager referred to as being â€Å"raped†. Under new owners who cared about them, employees were therefore more inclined to tolerate and adapt to cultural differences.In other cases, national differences were not a problem because the US and non-US companies had spent several years getting to know each other through joint ventures. The British retailer and the Japanese conglomerate had long worked closely with the American companies they eventually bought. Nearly every respondent at Metalfab and Hydrotech spoke with high regard for their parent’s technical expertise, manufacturing skill, knowledge of the international marketplace, and reputation for quality. As one employee commented, â€Å"Our concerns about the takeover were quickly put to rest. After all, Gruetzi was not an unknown quantity. They were an industry leader and we had worked with them on several projects in the past†.In contrast, respondents who were less familiar with the operations of their acquirer appear to have been the most concerned and apprehensive about the news of the merger when it was first announced. As one employee recalled, â€Å"At first I was sickened by the announcement, but when I saw Fabritek’s product line and the obvious potential for synergy, I became extremely excited†. Several respondents also mentioned that if the acquirer had a reputation for dismantling its acquisitions, they would have been far less sanguine about the takeover and the possibilities for success. Reputation was based not only on past direct experience but also on assumptions about how â€Å"companies like that† behaved. One Metalfab employee claimed that compared wi th other countries, â€Å"the Swedes are just like us†.The conventional wisdom at Metalfab was that Scandinavian firms had a history of keeping their acquisitions intact. Finally, the ability to choose made a difference. In several cases, the companies themselves initiated the search for a foreign partner. The element of surprise that creates anxiety and uncertainty was missing. A Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"We wanted to be sold; I viewed the announcement as a real positive – someone wanted to buy us! † Business Compatibility Organizational similarities were more important to most companies than national cultural differences. At the time of their respective mergers, employees of Metalfab, Hydrotech, and both retailers in the study took immediate comfort rom the fact that their new acquirers were in the same industry as they, especially the retailer sold by an American manufacturer to a Japanese retailer. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Our former p arent showed no commitment to, or interest in, our business. Now, there is a much better fit†. Another employee stated: â€Å"Everyone was initially apprehensive about the takeover but at least we were bought by a company which understands and cares about our business. This turned our initial apprehension into excitement†. Along similar lines, Metalfab employees reacted very favourably to the news that â€Å"a metal company was purchasing a metal company†.Organizational similarity meant that employees could feel that they play important roles in carrying out their parent’s strategy and believe that their parent values their contribution. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Despite the fact that Gruetzi is a much larger company than our former parent was, it is easier to see how we fit into their plans†. Thus, at both Hydrotech and Metalfab, the benefits of the merger were transparent to employees. As one manager stated, â€Å"This was an easy a nnouncement to make; the merger spoke for itself†. Employees at Hydrotech and Metalfab felt that sharing a common technical orientation with their parent allowed both rganizations to more easily overcome national differences. Several employees emphasized what a pleasure it was to work with a parent organization that understands the business they are in. As one engineer stated, â€Å"our two firms are like twins that were separated at birth†. Employees at both Hydrotech and Metalfab also feel that their parents’ expertise and credibility in the industry has made it easier to accept them in the role of acquirer. One Metalfab employee’s comment captured the attitude of the firm’s employees towards foreign ownership when he claimed: â€Å"It doesn’t bother me in the least that our parent is a foreign company because we speak the same language, Metal! A majority of those interviewed concluded that they would now prefer being taken over by a forei gn company in the same business than by an American firm in a different industry. Cultural Differences 15 Investment without Interference Of all the actions taken by a foreign partner, none seems to have a more positive impact on morale and on attitudes towards foreigners than a foreign owner’s decision to invest capital in its subsidiaries. Fabritek spent $11 to 12 million upgrading the production facilities of its US subsidiary during each of the first two years following the acquisition and has invested an additional $6 to 8 million annually ever since.Gruetzi has similarly invested in new equipment for Hydrotech’s Ohio production facility. To most American employees, such investment demonstrated that its new parent was committed to the company’s long-term health. When investment was accompanied by operational autonomy, the relationship was viewed very favourably and cross-cultural tensions minimized. In three cases – sporting goods manufacturer acquir ed by a Venezuelan company and both the retailer and the manufacturer acquired by Japanese companies – feeling lack of cultural tensions was a function of the Journal of Management Development 13,2 16 minimal interference of the foreign company in its new US operations. â€Å"They et us do what we are good at†, said an executive at the sporting goods firm, â€Å"which is make money†. Employees at Hydrotech and Metalfab were surprised by the extent to which their parents allowed them to manage their own operations. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Things have turned out much better than I originally expected. Gruetzi has not overmanaged us, they kept our management team intact, and we have not been forced to spend a lot of our time defending ourselves†. Metalfab employees were similarly pleased that their parent has allowed the firm to retain day-to-day control: â€Å"While our parent provides us with suggestions, they have allowed us to run the sh ow here†.We argue that American employees are less likely to view cultural heterogeneity as a problem when foreign management allows such autonomy along with adding resources. It should be pointed out that complete autonomy was not welcomed by all employees; a minority of employees (those dissatisfied with their firm’s policies) mentioned that they would be happier if the parent took a more active role in managing its subsidiary. At least one Hydrotech engineer wished that Gruetzi would force the company to standardize its designs and acquire better tools for its engineers to work with. At Metalfab, several employees expressed disappointment that its parent had not prevented the company from moving operations to Mexico.Furthermore, that high degrees of autonomy have possibly slowed down the speed with which the merged organizations develop a common culture. Several Metalfab employees reported that it has been difficult to â€Å"pull our two families together and get th e message out to customers that we are one firm†. Still, for the Americans autonomy generally meant that they did not feel foreigners were imposing â€Å"foreign ways† on them, which made them more tolerant of differences rather than resistant to them. Open Communication and Mutual Respect Nearly all interviewees agreed that open communication and showing mutual respect are critical to developing trust and ensuring a successful partnership.One retailer, for example, felt that its new Japanese parent wanted to learn from American practice, which made them feel valued and made rapport with the Japanese easy to develop. Tensions occurred, in contrast, when foreign colleagues did not show respect for American technology and expertise. At Fabritek, Swedish engineers and marketing personnel initially viewed Metalfab’s traditional, composite products as inferior to their own, all-metal product, which required tighter engineering and manufacturing tolerances in order to ensure a perfect seal. As a result, Americans said that the Swedes saw themselves as â€Å"the real engineers† in the company. But note here that the tensions were caused by technical differences, not cultural ones. ) Similarly, Hydrotech engineers described their German-Swiss colleagues as very arrogant and protective about Gruetzi’s products; there was a feeling that Hydrotech engineers should not â€Å"tamper† with their parent’s designs. Employee sensitivity to possible cultural differences played a significant role in reducing outbreaks of cross-cultural tension. One Hydrotech employee reasoned that cultural clashes had been avoided mainly because employees had been so concerned that such tensions could occur that they put more effort into trying to understand one another.Similar concerns led executives at Fabritek and Metalfab to schedule frequent meetings with each other soon after the merger; these meetings improved understanding and lessened tens ion between the two firms. Ironically, one senior American official recalled that he had rarely met with executives from the firm’s former US parent â€Å"even though they were located right down the road from the company†. Though formal cross-cultural training programmes were rare, open communication helped build relationships. Sensitivity to cultural differences and willingness to deal with problems directly minimized organizational tension. Cultural Differences 17 Business Success Nothing succeeds like success. People are willing to overlook cultural differences in relationships which bring clear benefits.But unsuccessful ventures produce squabbling even among people who are culturally similar. Creating opportunities for joint success between parent and subsidiary promotes acceptance of cross-cultural differences and creates support for the relationship. Several months before Hydrotech’s acquisition by Gruetzi, a company project had â€Å"gone sour† du e to a technical malfunction. After the merger, Hydrotech used Gruetzi’s technology to solve the problem. For the many employees who had suffered through the project’s difficulties, this single act sold the virtue of the partnership. Another Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"We had not realized how quickly Gruetzi’s technology could be put to use.In only one year, our department was able to bid on two projects and win a $45 million contract†. Nothing could possibly send a more positive message about the benefits of partnership than winning business because of it. Ongoing financial performance affects the quality and nature of communications between parent and subsidiary, and thus plays a role in determining whether or not cultural differences are viewed as problematic. If success reduces tensions, deteriorating performance increases them. Employees noted that travel budgets came under increasing pressure during periods of poor performance, and thus, fewer meetings take place between American and foreign employees.In difficult times, communication between parent and subsidiary may deteriorate as employees in each organization focus on their own problems. Finally, poor performance leads to frustration, fingerpointing, and reduced trust. One Hydrotech manager noticed that as Gruetzi has encountered more financial difficulties, they became increasingly demanding of Hydrotech and focused more on the company’s short-term operating results than in the past. The Pas sage of Time Does time heal all wounds? Time, at least, reduces anxieties and replaces stereotypes with a more varied view of other people. The levels of cross-cultural Journal of Management Development 13,2 18 tension vary as a function of the stage in the relationship-building process.Anxieties at Hydrotech and Metalfab were highest during the days immediately following the announcement of each takeover. This initial anxiety declined as the merger entered a transition ph ase in which management showed reluctance to create conflict. Employees of both subsidiaries also reacted positively to foreign management’s willingness to discuss issues and listen to their concerns at that time. According to one employee, â€Å"these meetings made us feel good about the changes and made us realize how alike our philosophies were†. But during the transition phase, employees also underestimated the degree of cultural heterogeneity and the potential for conflict to erupt.As management began to focus on more substantive issues and the amount of communications between American and foreign employees grew, a new realization set in that the cultural differences between the two firms were greater than initially realized, which required more awareness and sensitivity to avoid conflict. It appears likely then, that employee perceptions of cross-cultural tension are affected by the passage of time and by the merger process itself. One might also expect that empl oyee attitudes towards cultural heterogeneity will change as Americans and foreign employees work together and become more familiar with each others’ customs and values. Mistrust is always more likely at early stages of relationships.People at Hydrotech and Metalfab felt their new foreign parents were particularly guarded in discussing their technology during the first months together. As one employee mentioned: â€Å"It was like playing poker during the first year. You always got an answer to your question but the question was answered as narrowly as possible – even when, by withholding information, the answer was misleading†. But another engineer recognized the significance of sharing technology noting that â€Å"when our parent provides us with technology, they are giving us their life’s work†. T he Negative Side of Cross-cultural Interaction: T hreat and Prejudice Positive views of the relationship between US company and foreign parent predomin ated, but they were not universal in the companies studied.Top management and those with the greatest day-to-day contact were most likely to be favourable. Those at lower ranks anxious about the implications for their careers were more likely to express negative views, including prejudice and resentment, reacting the most nationalistically to the news of a foreign takeover. One American reported how â€Å"sick† he was over the fact that â€Å"this country is gradually being sold off to foreigners†. Some higher level managers commented that they would have been more comfortable if their acquirer had been American, but this preference did not seem to affect the relationship. A manager at the armaments company reported: â€Å"We would rather have been bought by a US company.There is an element of national pride, especially in our industry. We are very patriotic. There is no one in the company that would say we are a British firm. We all wear and buy ‘made in USAâ⠂¬â„¢ products†. Still, nationalist sentiments did not prevent this manager from declaring the relationship a success and identifying very few crosscultural problems. The most significant factor in determining employee reactions to acquisition was self-interest: how the change would affect their own standing in the firm. Virtually all interviewees reacted to news of the acquisition with the same question: â€Å"How will this impact on my career in this organization? †.Those employees who were most likely to suffer a loss of prestige or power, or who had reason to feel threatened by the mergers were most likely to react unfavourably to it. However, the fact that the vast majority of employees in both companies did not react in this way attests to just how apparent the benefits of these mergers were to most employees. Therefore threat could work both ways; if the foreign company improved performance, jobs would be saved. A manager at the armaments company observed,  "The community and employees understand there are differences between us and the British. But for them, having good jobs is more valuable. When corporate survival is at stake, people cannot afford to have culture become an issue†.Attitudes were shaped by symbolic acts taken by the foreign parents as much as by more substantive actions. One Metalfab employee recalled the day that Fabritek’s president arranged to have group photographs taken of all employees in the US so that they could be shown to people back in Sweden. â€Å"Fabritek immediately impressed me as a very people-oriented company†. The Attribution of Organizational Problems to National Culture Our findings suggest, then, that contextual factors act to either fan the flames of intergroup conflict and cross-cultural polarization or encourage organizational members to accept these differences. In the pilot study, organizational and technical compatibilities overwhelm cultural differences.Cultural differe nces thus seem to be a residual category to which people attribute problems in the absence of a supportive context. Cultural differences do not automatically cause tensions. But when tensions do arise – often due to situational factors such as lack of communication or poor performance – people blame many of the organizational difficulties they encounter on cultural heterogeneity – on the presence of others who seem different – rather than to the context within which these problems took place. This view is consistent with Chris Argyris’s perspective on defensive routines in organizations[16]. Why do people blame culture for problems and scribe differences between their own behaviour and that of their foreign colleagues to dispositional factors (the kind of people they are) rather than to situational factors (the organizational context)? First, cultural heterogeneity presents a conspicuous target for employees to point at when looking for an explanat ion for their problems. Such differences are readily apparent in early stages of contact between people who differ in a visible way, such as race, gender, or language, especially when there are only a few â€Å"tokens† such as expatriate managers among many â€Å"locals†[6]. Pre- Cultural Differences 19 Journal of Management Development 13,2 20 onceived notions and prejudices which employees bring into the evaluative process increase the likelihood that people will attribute behaviour to nationality. In-group favouritism is evoked in situations of cross-cultural contact. Research has shown that people want to favour members of their own group (the in-group) over others. Motivational theorists hold that self-esteem is enhanced if people value their own group and devalue other groups[17,18]. Such favouritism leads to a set of cognitive biases which reinforce the distinction between in-group and out-group members. People expect in-group members to display more desirable a nd fewer undesirable behaviours than out-group members[19].As a result, people are more likely to infer negative dispositions from undesirable and out-group behaviours than from undesirable in-group behaviours, and are less likely to infer positive dispositions from desirable outgroup behaviours than from desirable in-group behaviours[20-23]. Furthermore, people tend to remember behaviour which is congruent with their expectations over behaviour which is inconsistent with their views[24,25]. Thus, memories reinforce in-group favouritism as well. In-group biases are especially likely to form when individuals identify strongly with their group and when in-group members view other groups as a threat[17]. During an acquisition process, employees who work for, and identify with their company for many years suddenly find that another firm, with its own culture vision, values, and ways of doing things is responsible for their future.Cross-border mergers offer a particularly favourable envi ronment for such biases to develop because group membership is clearly defined by national as well as organizational boundaries. At both Hydrotech and Metalfab, in-group favouritism and cognitive biases may have been the driving forces behind the tendency among Americans to attribute wrongfully â€Å"bad news† to their foreign parent (i. e. out-group members). In one case, Hydrotech management had frozen salaries and extended the required working week from 40 to 44 hours after the merger in an effort to â€Å"impress Gruetzi by showing a willingness to make a few difficult decisions†. Many Hydrotech junior employees attributed this unpopular policy to Gruetzi’s management.Ironically, according to one middlelevel manager, when Gruetzi found out about these changes, they gave Hydrotech’s president one month to reverse the policy. In another example, soon after Metalfab announced plans to transfer some of its manufacturing operations to Mexico, rumours began circulating on the factory floor that the Swedes were behind the decision. When senior management in the US found out about the rumours, the company’s president called a meeting with all employees and took full responsibility for the decision. But many blue-collar workers continued to blame the Swedes for this unpopular move. They also attributed the decision to downsize the American workforce to the company’s foreign parent.A second explanation for why cultural differences are inappropriately invoked is called the â€Å"fundamental attribution error†[26] – a tendency to attribute one’s own behaviour to the situation but others’ behaviour to their â€Å"character†. People attribute negative behaviour of foreign colleagues to their nationality or culture (dispositional factors) rather than to situational or contextual factors which are operating behind the scenes[27]. For example, Metalfab interviewees initially viewed their Swedish c olleagues as fractious (i. e. â€Å"the Swedes are a stubborn people†) before it occurred to them that language problems had caused many early misunderstandings.They attributed the fact that their Swedish colleagues were more engineering oriented and less marketing oriented to national biases (â€Å"Swedes design bulldozers for the kind of work a garden shovel could do†) rather than to differences in product features and to the requirements of the European market. For example, rigid engineering standards for Fabritek’s all-metal products required engineers in Sweden to play a more central role in the parent’s operations, whereas the competitiveness of the US market demanded that marketing personnel play a more critical role in US decision making. But those who had more direct contact with the foreign parent, such as senior managers, also had more contextual information and were less likely to make the â€Å"fundamental attribution error†.If in-grou p biases and the fundamental attribution error are behind the tendency to view cultural heterogeneity as problematic, what steps might management take to promote inter-organizational co-operation in cross-border mergers? Our findings suggest that actions which make the relationship desirable, reduce uncertainty, show respect for the other group, create communication channels, and ensure business success will encourage employees to identify with their foreign colleagues and view the company as one organization. Creating an atmosphere of mutual respect, promoting open communication, investing in the future, maximizing opportunities to experience joint success, and taking steps to familiarize employees with their counterpart’s products and markets reduce the likelihood that cultural differences will be viewed as a source of organizational tension.Conclusion These pilot study findings are only suggestive, of course. We have a small number of cases from one region. While none of t hem can yet be called a longterm success, they have survived a period of integration during which other companies which perhaps did experience debilitating cultural problems could have called off the marriage. We could be looking only at the â€Å"winners† that managed cultural differences well. Indeed, those companies experiencing problems were more likely to turn down our request to participate in the pilot study. But if tilted towards successes, then this research points to some of the circumstances that contribute to successful cross-cultural relationships.And since we â€Å"biased† the interviews towards identification of cultural differences and cultural tensions, the relative absence of tension gives additional weight to our argument that contextual and situational factors, such as technical fit, business performance, and abundant communication, are more significant determinants of relationship effectiveness. Cultural Differences 21 Journal of Management Develop ment 13,2 22 Employees at each of the companies studied were able to identify a number of cultural differences between their own organization and that of their parent. Nevertheless, few employees viewed cultural heterogeneity as a significant source of tension in their firm. Such findings lend support to the notion that national cultural differences do not necessarily increase the amount of tension between organizations or make partnerships among companies from different countries untenable.This article proposes that there are a number of factors which help to determine how employees react to foreign ownership. It calls into question the assumption that the larger the social distance or cultural gap between the national cultures of two merged organizations, the greater will be the potential for strain in the relationship between employees. The findings from our pilot study suggest contextual factors are extremely important mediators in crosscultural relationships. These factors infl uence how cultural differences are interpreted and whether they are viewed by employees as problematic. Indeed, they may even determine whether â€Å"cultural differences† are identified at all. References 1. Hofstede, G. Cultures and Organization, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1991. 2. Kanter, R. M. , â€Å"Transcending Business Boundaries: 12,000 World Managers View Change†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 69, May-June 1991. 3. Hampden-Turner, C. , â€Å"The Boundaries of Business: Commentaries from the Experts†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 69, September-October 1991. 4. Lodge, G. C. and Vogel, E. F. (Eds), Ideology and National Competitiveness: An Analysis of Nine Countries, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1987. 5. Kanter, R. M. , Applbaum, K. and Yatsko, P. , FCB and Publicis ( A ): Forming the Alliance, Harvard Business School Case Records, Boston, MA, 1993. 6. Kanter, R. M. Men and Women of the Corporation, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1977. 7. Westn ey, E. , Imitation and Innovation: T he Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji, Japan, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987. 8. Starbuck, W. H. , â€Å"Learning by Knowledge-intensive Firms†, Journal of M anagement Studies, Vol. 29 No. 6, 1992, pp. 713-40. 9. Haire, M. , Ghiselli, E. E. and Porter, L. W. , Managerial T hinking, Wiley, New York, NY, 1966. 10. Wuthnow, R. and Shrum, W. , â€Å"Knowledge Workers as a ‘New Class’: Structural and Ideological Convergence among Professional-Technical Workers and Managers†, Work and Occupations, Vol. 10, 1983, pp. 471-87. 11. Myers, P. and Kanter, R. M. Inmarsat 1991 , Harvard Business School Case Records, Boston, MA, 1992. 12. Kanter, R. M. , When Giants Lea r n to Dance: M aster ing the Challenges of S trategy, Management, and Careers in the 1990s, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1989. 13. Kanter, R. M. and Gabriel, L. , BhS ( A ): Opening Boundaries, Harvard Business School Case Records , Boston, MA, 1992. 14. Kanter, R. M. , â€Å"Competing on Relationships: How Companies Build Collaborative Advantage†, Harvard Business Review, May-June 1994. 15. M& A Almanac, Vol. 26 No. 6, 1992, p. 54. 16. Argyris, C. , Overcoming Organizational Defenses: Facilitating Organizational Learning, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA, 1990. 17. Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. â€Å"An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict†, in Austin, W. S. and Worchel, S. (Eds), T he S ocial Psychology of Intergroup Relations , Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, 1979, pp. 33-47. 18. Turner, J. C. , Rediscovering the Social Group: A S elf-categorization T heory, Blackwell, Oxford, 1987. 19. Howard, J. W. and Rothbart, M. , â€Å"Social Categorization and Memory for In-group and Outgroup Behavior, Jour nal of Personal ity and S ocial Psychology , Vol. 38 No. 2, 1980, pp. 301-10. 20. Taylor, D. M. and Jaggi, V. , â€Å"Ethnocentrism and Causal Attribution in a South Indian Context†, Journal of Cros s Cultural Psychology, Vol. 5 No. 2, 1974, pp. 162-71. 21. Allen, V. L. and Wilder, D. A. â€Å"Categorization, Belief Similarity, and Intergroup Discrimination†, Jour nal of Personal ity and S ocial Psychology , Vol. 32 No. 6, 1975, pp. 971-7. 22. Allen, V. L. and Wilder, D. A. , â€Å"Group Categorization and Attribution of Belief Similarity†, Small Group Behavior, Vol. 10 No. 1, 1979, pp. 73-80. 23. Pettigrew, T. F. , â€Å"The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport’s Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice†, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 5 No. 4, 1979, pp. 461-76. 24. Hastie, R. and Kumar, P. A. , â€Å"Person Memory: Personality Traits as Organizing Principles in Memory for Behavior†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 37 No. 1, 1979, pp. 25-38. 25. Srull, T. D. Lichtenstein, M. and Rothbart, M. , â€Å"Associative Storage and Retrieval Processes in Person Memory†, Jour nal of E xper imental Psychology: L ea r ning, M emor y and Cognition, Vol. 11 No. 2, 1985, pp. 316-45. 26. Ross, L. , â€Å"The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process†, in Berkowitz, L. (Ed. ), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1977, pp. 173-220. 27. Jones, E. E. and Nisbett, R. E. , â€Å"The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behavior†, in Jones, E. E. , Kanouse, D. E. , Kelley, H. H. , Nisbett, R. E. , Valins, S. and Weiner, B. Eds), Perceiving the Causes of Behavior , General Learning Press, Morristown, NJ, 1971, pp. 79-94. Further Reading Locksley, A. , Ortiz, V. and Hepburn, C. , â€Å"Social Categorization and Discriminatory Behavior: Extinguishing the Minimal Intergroup Discrimination Effect†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 39 No. 5, 1980, pp. 773-83. Maass, A. , Salvi, D. , Arcuri, L. and Semin, G. , â€Å"Language Use in Intergroup Contexts: T he Linguistic Intergroup Bias†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 57 No. 6, 1989, pp. 981-93. Tajfel, H. , â€Å"Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations†, Annual Review of Psychology, Annual Reviews, Stanford, CA, 1982, pp. 1-39. Cultural Differences 23